This document discusses qualitative research methods, specifically field research. It describes three general approaches to research: positivism, critical, and interpretive. It then discusses characteristics of qualitative research and different types of field research like ethnography, ethnomethodology, and phenomenological studies. The document outlines sampling methods, data collection techniques like observation and interviews, issues around validity and reliability, and both advantages and disadvantages of field research methods.

1. Field Research
Neuman and Robson Ch. 12 and 13

2. Introduction to qualitative
methodology
 Data in words rather than numbers
 Non-positivistic orientation
 Includes:
 Field research
 Qualitative interviewing
 Historical comparative analysis

3. Three General Approaches to
Research
APPROACH POSITIVISM CRITICAL INTERPRETIVE
USUAL TYPE experiment, historical- field research,
OF RESEARCH survey, comparative interview
cont. anal.
PERSPECTIVE technocratic transcendent transcendent
TYPE OF LOGIC reconstructed logic-in-practice logic-in-practice
PATH linear non-linear non-linear
/cyclical /cyclical

4. Characteristics of Qualitative
Research
 Context is critical
 In depth, detailed
 Researcher immerses self in data (non-
objective)
 Researcher integrity
 Bias recognized
 Use of grounded theory
 Can detect process and sequence
 Data are interpreted rather than analyzed

5. Elite Studies
 Special type of field research
 Elites difficult to study, especially with
quantitative methods
 Preferred method is field study
 But special problems
 Gatekeepers
 Need for connections/contacts
 Danger of manipulation
 Difficulty of establishing trust

6. Field research
 Main types of Field Research are:
 Ethnography
 Ethnomethodology
 Phenomenological Study
 Purposes of field research:
 Data collection
 Theory construction

7. Ethnography
 A way of building an understanding the
culture and behaviours of a group as a whole.
 Done in a setting or field site where a group
of people share a common culture.
 In sociology, ethnography usually called a
field study
 Uses:
 Participant Observation
 Interviews with Informants
 Examination of documents and cultural artifacts

8. Ethnography Video
 Getting People to Talk: An
Ethnography & Interviewing Primer
(Copyright © 2008 Gabriel Biller & Kristy Scovel)

9. Ethnomethodology
 The study of commonsense knowledge
 How do individuals make sense of social
situations and act on their knowledge?
 What are the tacit rules used by members of
a culture?
 Detailed studies of interactions
 Breeching experiments (Garfinkel)
 To uncover hidden norms

10. Phenomenological Study
 Understanding an experience from a
research participant's point of view
 Interview several participants as to their
perceptions of an experience
 Try to build a picture of the experience
through using a combination of theories,
literature in the area, illustrated by anecdotes,
to build a detailed portrait of the experience
 Use of Max Weber’s “verstehen”

11. Topics For Field Research
 Topics that defy simple quantification.
 Topics where attitudes and behaviours are best
understood within their natural setting.
 Social processes that take place over time.
 The study of meanings, practices, episodes,
encounters, roles, relationships, groups,
organizations, and settlements.

12. Sampling in field research
 Types of nonprobability sampling methods
commonly used:
 Quota sampling
 Snowball sampling
 Deviant cases
 Purposive sampling or judgmental sampling

13. Main Methods Used in Field
Research:
 Field research includes:
 Case study approach
 Participant observation and non-
participant observation
 Intensive interviewing

14. The Case Study Approach
 To try to develop an understanding of a social
process by studying one case or a small
number of cases in depth
 Can be done using a combination of intensive
interviewing and observation
 Snapshot case studies
 Longitudinal case studies
 Pre-post case studies
 Patchwork case studies
 Comparative case studies.

15. Observation in Field Research
 Preparing for the field:
 1. Background preparation and literature review
 2. Talking to informants
 3. Gaining entry into the group
 Gatekeepers
 Public vs. private settings

16. The Various Roles of the Observer
(Raymond Gold’s levels)
 A. Complete participant
 B. Participant-as-observer
 C. Observer-as-participant
 D. Complete observer

17. Recording observations
 Field journal
 To record empirical data
 To record interpretations
 Guidelines for note taking
 Don't trust your memory
 Take notes in stages
 Record everything

18. Organizing and Writing Notes
 Rewrite your notes as soon as possible after making
observations
 type or enter into a word-processing program
 Creating files helps organize field notes for analysis.
 a. Chronological file as a master file.
 b. Background files (from literature review, and
documentation of topic's history.)
 c. Biographical files on key subjects in the study.
 d. Bibliographical files of all references related to study.
 e. Analytical files to categorize what you are observing.
 f. Cross-reference files may be useful to retrieve data.

19. Using computers in field
research
 some software programs are now available for
field research notes and analysis of data
 Can save time, especially when analyzing data
 See free demos of NVivo and XSight at:
http://www.qsrinternational.com/products_free-
trial-software.aspx

20. Data analysis in field work
 Data analysis in field work is an ongoing
process
 Constant interaction between data collection
and data analysis.
 Look for:
 Similarities, norms, and universals
 Dissimilarities, differences, and deviations from
norms
 Selective perception can be a problem as you
learn more about the topic

21. Asking Questions: The Field
Research Interview
 Types of qualitative interviews:
 Structured
 Semistructured
 Depth
 Field research most often uses unstructured
interviews
 The use of probes is important in field
research

22. Conducting interviews
 Try to be interactive and sensitive to the language
and concepts used by the interviewee
 Try to keep the agenda flexible
 Aim to go below the surface of the topic being
discussed
 Explore what people say in detail
 Check you have understood respondents' meanings
 Try to discover the interviewee's own framework of
meanings
 Avoid imposing own structures and assumptions
 Need to consider how perceived by interviewees and
the effects of characteristics such as class, race, sex,
and social distance on the interview

23. Types of questions for
qualitative interviews
 Behaviour or experience
 Opinion or belief
 Feelings
 Knowledge
 Sensory
 Background or demographic

24. Recording interviews
 Notes written at the time
 Notes written afterwards
 Audio or videotaping

25. Researcher as research instrument
 Qualitative interviews require considerable
skill on the part of the interviewer.
 The interviewer needs to notice how
directive he or she is being
 Whether leading questions are being asked
whether cues are picked up or ignored
 Whether interviewees are given enough time
to explain what they mean

26. Maintaining control of the
interview
 Know what it is you want to find out
 Ask the right questions to get the information
you need
 Give appropriate verbal and non-verbal
feedback
 Good feedback vs. bad feedback
 Avoiding bias

27. Bracketing Your Biases
 First, make a list of your characteristics:
 1. your gender;
 2. your age;
 3. your ethnic or national identification;
 4. your religion or philosophy of life;
 5. your political party or orientation;
 6. your favourite psychological theory.
 Add four more characteristics: words or
phrases that are descriptive of you as an
individual.

28. Bracketing (cont.)
 1. List ways in which your characteristics
might bias you in your efforts at research
interviewing.
 2. Then write how you might counteract
these biases.
 3. And then write how these efforts to
counteract your biases might themselves
lead to other biases!

29. Advantages of field research
 Can study nonverbal behaviour
 Flexibility
 Natural environment
 Longitudinal analysis
 Relatively inexpensive

30. Disadvantages of field research
 Not applicable to the investigation of large
social settings
 Making generalizations can be problematic
 Biases, attitudes, and assumptions of the
researcher can be problem
 Selective perception and memory
 Selectivity in data collection
 Presence of the researcher may change the
system or group being studied
 Virtually impossible to replicate the findings

31. Validity and Reliability
 Validity very high
 Can document complexity of human behaviour
 Detailed descriptions
 Reliability low
 Subjective
 Difficult to replicate
 Low external validity (generalizability)