The document provides an overview of the eukaryotic cell cycle and mitosis. It discusses that eukaryotic cells pass through several phases (G1, S, G2, M) in the cell cycle. The S phase involves DNA replication, while mitosis (M phase) involves nuclear division and cytokinesis. Mitosis ensures each daughter cell receives a full copy of DNA through processes like prophase, metaphase, anaphase and telophase. Cytokinesis then divides the cytoplasm, completing cell division. The cell cycle and mitosis allow for growth, repair, and reproduction in multicellular organisms.

1. Welcome to Eukaryotic Cell Cycle
By
N.Sannigrahi, Associate Professor of Botany
Nistarini College, D.B.Road, Purulia (W.B) India

2. CELL DIVISION-THE BEAUTY OF
MULTICELLULARITY
 Cells undergo a continuous alteration between division and
nondivision.The events occur from the completion of one
division until the completion of the next division constitute the
cell cycle. The cellular organisms in general and multicellular
organisms in particular need the cell cycle to address the
different growing needs in course of its developmental stages
along with their urge to leave the successors for the next
generation. Thus, the cell division play a very crucial role in
this regard for the growing needs. Most of the multicellular
organisms build up their initial body parts by the millions of
cell undergoing division, differentiation, dedifferentiation for
the complete set of life. This is the beauty of the
multicellularity controlled by certain check points.

3. CELL CYCLE

4. CELL CYCLE
 Actively dividing eukaryote cells pass through a series of stages
known collectively as the cell cycle: two gap phases (G1 and G2); an
S (for synthesis) phase, in which the genetic material is duplicated;
and an M phase, in which mitosis partitions the genetic material and
the cell divides.
 G1 phase. Metabolic changes prepare the cell for division. At a
certain point - the restriction point - the cell is committed to
division and moves into the S phase.
 S phase. DNA synthesis replicates the genetic material. Each
chromosome now consists of two sister chromatids.
 G2 phase. Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic
materials necessary for mitosis and cytokinesis.
 M phase. A nuclear division (mitosis) followed by a cell division
(cytokinesis).
 The period between mitotic divisions - that is, G1, S and G2 - is
known as interphase.

5. REGULATION OF CELL CYCLE
 The events of cell cycles are genetically controlled at three
main “check points’ to direct whether the cycle will continue or
to be stopped.
 i.G1/S check point-commonly called start or restriction point.
If conditions are not suitable, it enters in G0 phase.
 ii.G2/M check point-Between G2 and M phase.DNA damaging
agents can stop the cycle
 iii. Spindle check point-Beginning of the anaphase to assess
whether all chromosomes are attached to the spindle or not
 The control mechanisms involves the successive waves of
cyclin-dependent –kinases(CDK) or mitosis promoting
factors(MPF).Cyclin is a protein factor that overall regulates
the controlling mechanisms.

6. MITOSIS AND CONTRIBUTORS
 Mitosis , a somatic or equational division in which two
daughter cells are formed genetically similar to the mother cells
because of the constancy of the chromosome number
quantitatively and quantitatively. It may be astral mitosis
(animals) or amphiastral in plants on the basis of centrioles and
aster fibers formation.
 1870-Strasburger first studied mitosis in plants
 1879-Boveri & Flemming in animal cells
 1875-Flemming coined the term ‘Chromatin’
 1882-W.flemming coined the term ‘mitosis’
 1887-Schneider introduced the term ‘karyokinesis’
 1887-Whiteman introduced the term ‘cytokinesis’.

7. DNA REPLICATION AT S PHASE

8. DNA DUPLICATION AND -----

9. MITOSIS-KARYOKINESIS & CYTOKINESIS
 Mitosis is a form of eukaryotic cell division that produces two
daughter cells with the same genetic component as the parent
cell. Chromosomes replicated during the S phase are divided in
such a way as to ensure that each daughter cell receives a copy
of every chromosome. In actively dividing animal cells, the
whole process takes about one hour.
 The replicated chromosomes are attached to a 'mitotic
apparatus' that aligns them and then separates the sister
chromatids to produce an even partitioning of the genetic
material. This separation of the genetic material in a mitotic
nuclear division (or karyokinesis) is followed by a separation
of the cell cytoplasm in a cellular division (or cytokinesis) to
produce two daughter cells.

10. MITOSIS-GROWTH & CANCER
 . In some single-celled organisms mitosis forms the basis of
asexual reproduction. In diploid multicellular organisms sexual
reproduction involves the fusion of two haploid gametes to
produce a diploid zygote. Mitotic divisions of the zygote and
daughter cells are then responsible for the subsequent growth
and development of the organism
 In the adult organism, mitosis plays a role in cell replacement,
wound healing and tumor formation.
 Mitosis, although a continuous process, is conventionally
divided into five stages: prophase, prometaphase, metaphase,
anaphase and telophase.
 All the stages occur maintaining a proper sequence in order to
achieve the goal.

11. PROPHASE & PROMETAPHASE
 Prophase
 Prophase occupies over half of mitosis. The nuclear
membrane breaks down to form a number of small vesicles
and the nucleolus disintegrates. A structure known as the
centrosome duplicates itself to form two daughter
centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of the cell. The
centrosomes organize the production of microtubules that
form the spindle fibers that constitute the mitotic
spindle. The chromosomes condense into compact
structures. Each replicated chromosome can now be seen
to consist of two identical chromatids (or sister
chromatids) held together by a structure known as the
centromere.
 Prometaphase

12. PROPHASE & METAPHASE
 The chromosomes, led by their centromeres, migrate to the
equatorial plane in the mid-line of the cell - at right-angles to
the axis formed by the centrosomes. This region of the mitotic
spindle is known as the metaphase plate. The spindle fibers
bind to a structure associated with the centromere of each
chromosome called a kinetochore. Individual spindle fibers
bind to a kinetochore structure on each side of the centromere.
The chromosomes continue to condense.
 Metaphase
 The chromosomes align themselves along the metaphase plate
of the spindle apparatus.

13. ANAPHASE & TELOPHASE
 Anaphase
 The shortest stage of mitosis. The centromeres divide, and the
sister chromatids of each chromosome are pulled apart - or
'disjoin' - and move to the opposite ends of the cell, pulled by
spindle fibres attached to the kinetochore regions. The separated
sister chromatids are now referred to as daughter
chromosomes. (It is the alignment and separation in
metaphase and anaphase that is important in ensuring that each
daughter cell receives a copy of every chromosome.)
 Telophase
 The final stage of mitosis, and a reversal of many of the processes
observed during prophase. The nuclear membrane reforms
around the chromosomes grouped at either pole of the cell, the
chromosomes uncoil and become diffuse, and the spindle fibres
disappear.

14. CYTOKINESIS
 Cytokinesis
 The final cellular division to form two new cells. In plants a cell
plate forms along the line of the metaphase plate; in animals there is
a constriction of the cytoplasm. The cell then enters interphase - the
interval between mitotic divisions.
 Cell plate method or Cell furrow method:
 i. Cell plate at the equatorial plane which begins at the central region
and proceeds towards periphery
 ii. Cell plate is formed from phragmoplast , which in turn, is
produced from Golgi bodies
 iii. Calcium & magnesium pectates are deposited to solidify the cell
plate
 iv. Cell plate formation enables to form two daughter cells.
 In Cell furrow method, cell membranes invaginates at the region of
equatorial plate and a furrow is developed that gradually meets in the
centre to form two daughter cells.

15. STAGES OF MITOSIS

16. PHASES OF MITOSIS IN ORDER

17. SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS
 i.Maintenance of genetic stability
 ii. Growth-accomplished due to the division of cells by
increasing number,
 iii. Surface-volume ration-Smaller cells with higher surface
volume ration are more efficient than larger cells having less
surface-volume ratio. Mitosis restores the surface volume ratio
 iv. Nucleo-cytoplasmic ratio-ratio between nucleus and
cytoplasm maintained by mitosis,
 v. Vegetative and asexual propagation promotion Repair,
regeneration and healing of wounds,
 vi. Useful somatic variation induction.
 Thus, the multi-cellularity and cell division are very
synonymous for the complexity of life

18. Hope, YOU HAVE ENJOIYED THIS JOURNEY.THANKS

19. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
 The designer is highly grateful to the following to develop this
open source article without any cost:
 1.Google,
 Concepts of Genetics-Klug, Cummings, Spencer, Palladino.