This document provides an overview of earthquakes, including their causes, measurement, locations, and impacts. It defines key earthquake terms like focus, epicenter, and magnitudes. Earthquakes are caused by the release of energy at fracture points in the Earth's crust. They can be located using seismic waves measured by seismometers. Larger earthquakes cause more damage through ground shaking and secondary effects like tsunamis, landslides, and fires. The document reviews earthquake hazards and recent major quakes around the world.

1. GEOG 1011: Landscapes and Water, fall 2005
Adina Racoviteanu

2. Objectives
• Relate earthquake activity to plate tectonics
• Define earthquake, and identify the focus and
epicenter of an earthquake.
• Describe the types of waves emitted during an
earthquake.
• Distinguish between earthquake intensity and
magnitude.
• Review some current methods of earthquake
prediction.

3. Why do earthquakes occur?
• Fractures, faults
• Energy released
and propagates
in all directions
as seismic
waves causing
earthquakes
focus
epicenter

4. Where do earthquakes occur:
1) Most earthquakes occur along the edge
of the oceanic and continental plate
2) Along faults: normal, reverse, transform

5. definitions
• Earthquake = Vibration of the Earth produced by
the rapid release of energy
• Seismic waves = Energy moving outward from
the focus of an earthquake
• Focus= location of initial slip on the fault; where
the earthquake origins
• Epicenter= spot on Earth’s surface directly
above the focus

6. Seismic waves: forms
• P-waves:
– called compressional, or push-pull waves
– Propagate parralel to the direction in which the wave is moving
– Move through solids, liquids
• S-waves:
– Called shear waves
– Propagate the movement perpendicular
to the direction in which the wave is
moving
• Surface waves (L-waves or long waves).
– Complex motion
– Up-and-down and side-to-side
– Slowest
– Most damage to structures, buildings

7. Seismic waves: properties
• Velocity: function of the physical properties of
the rock the wave is traveling through
– Velocity increases with rock density
– Velocity changes when passing from one
material to another (increases/decreases)
– Liquids: S-waves do not get transmitted
through liquid; P-waves slow down
• Why is this important?
–If we know the velocity of the wave, we can infer
the type of rock it traveled through- that’s how we map
the interior of the Earth!!!

8. Measuring earthquakes
• Seismometers:
instruments that
detect seismic waves
• Seismographs
Record intensity, height
and amplitude of seismic
waves

9. Locating the shaking
• Measure time between P and S waves on a
seismogram
• Need at least 3 seismographs

10. Earthquake size: two ways to
measure
1) Magnitude: Richter Scale
• Measures the energy released by fault
movement
• related to the maximum amplitude of the S
wave measured from the seismogram
• Logarithmic-scale; quantitative measure
• For each whole number there is a 31.5 times
increase in energy
• eg. an increase from 5 to 7 on the Richter scale =
an increase in energy of 992 times!!

11. 2) Intensity: Mercalli Scale:
– What did you feel?
– Assigns an intensity or rating to measure an
earthquake at a particular location (qualitative)
– I (not felt) to XII (buildings nearly destroyed)
– Measures the destructive effect
• Intensity is a function of:
• Energy released by fault
• Geology of the location
• Surface substrate: can magnify shock waves e.g.
Mexico City (1985) and San Francisco (1989)

12. Frequency of Occurrence of Earthquakes
Descriptor Magnitude Average Annually
Great 8 and higher 1 ¹
Major 7 - 7.9 17 ²
Strong 6 - 6.9 134 ²
Moderate 5 - 5.9 1319 ²
Light 4 - 4.9
13,000
(estimated)
Minor 3 - 3.9
130,000
(estimated)
Very Minor 2 - 2.9
1,300,000
(estimated)
¹ Based on observations since 1900.
² Based on observations since 1990.

13. Recent Earthquake Activity in
the World

14. Largest earthquake in the world
Chile : 1960 May 22
19:11:14 UTC
Magnitude 9.5
•More than 2,000 killed, 3,000 injured,
2,000,000 homeless, and $550 million
damage in southern Chile
• tsunami caused 61 deaths
•$75 million damage in Hawaii;
• 138 deaths and $50 million damage in
Japan;
•32 dead and missing in the Philippines;
and $500,000 damage to the west coast of
the United States.

16. Most Destructive Known Earthquakes on Record in the World
Date Location Deaths Magnitud
e
Comments
May 31, 19
70
Peru 66,000 7.9 $530,000,000
damage, great rock
slide, floods.
July 27, 19
76
China,
Tangshan
255,000
(official)
7.5 Estimated death toll as
high as 655,000.
Sept 19, 1985 Mexico
Michoacan
9500
(official)
8.0 Estimated death toll as
high as 30,000
Old lake bed magnified
shock waves by 500%
2001 Jan 26 India 20,023 7.7 166,836 injured,
600,000 homeless
.
2004 Dec 26 Sumatra 283,106 9.0 Deaths from earthquake
and tsunami

17. Earthquake damage
• Ground Failure - constructions collapse
• Fires - from broken gas and electrical lines
• Landslides - EQ's triggered; occur in
hilly/mountainous areas.
• Liquefaction - water-saturated,
unconsolidated materials flow
• Tsunami (seismic sea waves; "tidal"
waves) - can grow up to 65 m

18. Earthquakes and the San Andreas
Fault

20. Landslides: May 30, 1970 Peru disaster
Magnitude: 7.9
•A large mass of ice and rock slid from a
vertical face on Nevado Huascaran, the
highest peak in Peru
•Debris reached a velocity of 280 km/hr
•traveled 11 km horizontally in about 4
minutes at a mean velocity of 165
km/hr.
•Buried the towns of Yungay and
Ranrahirca, The death toll in both
villages was 20,000.

21. The town of Huaraz flattened

22. India, Gujarat earthquake
Jan 26, 2001

23. Jun 23, 2001 S.Peru earthquake
Arequipa

24. Earthquake risk and prediction
• Long-term methods
1) seismic hazard maps
2) probability analysis
based on:
- historical EQ records
- geologic EQ records
- slip-rate on active faults
- frequency and
magnitude of recent EQ's
Real-time 24 Hour
Forecast

25. Short-term predictions
Precursor phenomena (<1 year to days)
1. Foreshocks: usually increase in magnitude
2. Ground deformation
3. Fluctuations in water well levels
4. Changes in local radio wave characteristics
5. Anomalous animal behavior???

26. Impacts of Earthquake Prediction