DNA, Nucleotides, Structure of DNA, Features of DNA, watson-crick Model of DNA,base pairing rule, Denaturation of DNA,Higher organization of DNA, Histones, chromosomes, nucleosomes, introns, extrons, repeat sequences of DNA
I am a IB HL Biology Student. Our teacher asks students to give lectures, I gave my lecture on Transcription and Translation. Please read through slide notes, should be quite helpful. Also contains some past paper questions.
Genetic code is the term we use for the way that the four bases of DNA--the A, C, G, and Ts--are strung together in a way that the cellular machinery, the ribosome, can read them and turn them into a protein. In the genetic code, each three nucleotides in a row count as a triplet and code for a single amino acid.
I am a IB HL Biology Student. Our teacher asks students to give lectures, I gave my lecture on Transcription and Translation. Please read through slide notes, should be quite helpful. Also contains some past paper questions.
Genetic code is the term we use for the way that the four bases of DNA--the A, C, G, and Ts--are strung together in a way that the cellular machinery, the ribosome, can read them and turn them into a protein. In the genetic code, each three nucleotides in a row count as a triplet and code for a single amino acid.
DNA is maintained in a compressed, supercoiled state.
But basis of replication is the formation of strands based on specific bases pairing with their complementary bases
This Presentation will be helpful to undergraduate and postgraduate students of biology and biotechnology in understanding the significance of COT curves in determination of gene and genome complexity amoug various organisms
Introduction
History
Definition
Classification of DNA Polymerase
Mechanism of DNA Replication
Process of DNA Replication
Initiation
Regulation
Termination
Conclusion
Reference
DNA replication is semi-conservative, one strand serves as the template for the second strand. Furthermore, DNA replication only occurs at a specific step in the cell cycle.
DNA replication in eukaryotes is much more complicated than in prokaryotes, although there are many similar aspects.
DNA replication is a biological process that occurs in all living organisms and copies their DNA; it is the basis for biological inheritance.
Eukaryotic cells can only initiate DNA replication at a specific point in the cell cycle, the beginning of S phase.
Due to the size of chromosomes in eukaryotes, eukaryotic chromosomes contain multiple origins of replication
DNA supercoiling refers to the over- or under-winding of a DNA strand, and is an expression of the strain on that strand.Certain enzymes such as topoisomerases are able to change DNA topology to facilitate functions such as DNA replication or transcription
The process by which DNA molecule makes its identical copies is known as DNA replication or DNA replication is the biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule
it describes transcription with simple diagram and animation. its steps and inhibitors are described for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. it will be easily understood by UG students . post transcriptional modification of all the RNA are also described with diagrams.
According to the central dogma of molecular biology, genetic information usually flows (1) from DNA to DNA during its transmission from generation to generation and (2) from DNA to protein during its phenotypic expression in an organism
A detail ppt about Genome organization with focus on all levels of organization. Most recent research and findings about CT is also added in this ppt. Detail account of 30nm fiber and its ultra structure and types is also included.
DNA is maintained in a compressed, supercoiled state.
But basis of replication is the formation of strands based on specific bases pairing with their complementary bases
This Presentation will be helpful to undergraduate and postgraduate students of biology and biotechnology in understanding the significance of COT curves in determination of gene and genome complexity amoug various organisms
Introduction
History
Definition
Classification of DNA Polymerase
Mechanism of DNA Replication
Process of DNA Replication
Initiation
Regulation
Termination
Conclusion
Reference
DNA replication is semi-conservative, one strand serves as the template for the second strand. Furthermore, DNA replication only occurs at a specific step in the cell cycle.
DNA replication in eukaryotes is much more complicated than in prokaryotes, although there are many similar aspects.
DNA replication is a biological process that occurs in all living organisms and copies their DNA; it is the basis for biological inheritance.
Eukaryotic cells can only initiate DNA replication at a specific point in the cell cycle, the beginning of S phase.
Due to the size of chromosomes in eukaryotes, eukaryotic chromosomes contain multiple origins of replication
DNA supercoiling refers to the over- or under-winding of a DNA strand, and is an expression of the strain on that strand.Certain enzymes such as topoisomerases are able to change DNA topology to facilitate functions such as DNA replication or transcription
The process by which DNA molecule makes its identical copies is known as DNA replication or DNA replication is the biological process of producing two identical replicas of DNA from one original DNA molecule
it describes transcription with simple diagram and animation. its steps and inhibitors are described for both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. it will be easily understood by UG students . post transcriptional modification of all the RNA are also described with diagrams.
According to the central dogma of molecular biology, genetic information usually flows (1) from DNA to DNA during its transmission from generation to generation and (2) from DNA to protein during its phenotypic expression in an organism
A detail ppt about Genome organization with focus on all levels of organization. Most recent research and findings about CT is also added in this ppt. Detail account of 30nm fiber and its ultra structure and types is also included.
Nucleic Acids
DNA
Eukaryotic Chromosomes
The Histones
Deoxynucleic acid ( DNA )
Importance of Nucleotides
Base pairing
Denaturation and Renaturation
Determination GC content
Prokaryotic DNA synthesis
Prokaryotic DNA Replication
Transcription
Coding Strand and Template Strand
Steps of RNA synthesize
Operation “Blue Star” is the only event in the history of Independent India where the state went into war with its own people. Even after about 40 years it is not clear if it was culmination of states anger over people of the region, a political game of power or start of dictatorial chapter in the democratic setup.
The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
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June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
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The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
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Embracing GenAI - A Strategic ImperativePeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
7. Polarity of DNA Structure
• In the case of DNA, the
base sequence is always
written from the 5' end to
the 3' end.
• This is called the polarity
of the DNA chain.
9. Watson-Crick Model of DNA Structure
• Right handed double helix
• Complementary Base
pairing Rule (Chargaff's
Rule)
( A+ G= C+T )
• Hydrogen Bonding
• Antiparallel
10. The salient features of Watson-Crick model of DNA
1. The DNA is a right handed double
helix. lt consists of two
polydeoxyribonucleotide chains
(strands) twisted around each other
on a common axis.
2. The two strands are antiparallel, i.e.,
one strand runs in the 5' to 3'
direction while the other in 3'to
5'direction. This is comparable to two
parallel adjacent roads carrying traffic
in opposite direction
11. 3. The width (or diameter) of a
double helix is 20 A° (2 nm).
3. Each turn (pitch) of the helix is
34 A° (3.4 nm) with 10 pairs of
nucleotides, each pair placed at
a distance of about 3.4 A°.
12. 5. The double helix has (wide)
major grooves and (narrow)
minor grooves along the
phosphodiester backbone.
Proteins interact with DNA at
these grooves, without
disrupting the base pairs and
double helix.
13. 6. Each strand of DNA has a
hydrophilic deoxyribose
phosphate backbone (3'-5'
phosphodiester bonds) on
the outside (periphery) of
the molecule while the
hydrophobic bases are
stacked inside (core).
The bases are located
perpendicular to the helix axis,
whereas the sugars are nearly
at right angles to the axis.
14. 7. The two polynucleotide chains are not identical but
complementary to each other due to base pairing.
8. The base pairing (A with T; G with C) is called Chargaff's rule,
which states that the number of purines is equal to the number of
pyrimidines.
15. 9. The two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds
formed by complementary base pairs.
A-T pair has 2 hydrogen bonds
G-C pair has 3 hydrogen bonds
The G = C is stronger by about 50% than A=T.
16. 10. Each strand
acts as a template
for the synthesis of
the opposite strand
during replication
process.
17. DNA is the more suitable storehouse of
genetic information
RNA is more prone to
spontaneous hydrolysis of the
P-O-P bonds.
On other hands the DNA chain
is much more stable and the
half-life for spontaneous
hydrolysis is about 200 million
years.
18. Denaturation of DNA strands
• The double stranded DNA may be denatured and separated by heat. This is called as
melting of DNA.
• Tm or melting temperature is the temperature when half of the helical structure is
denatured.
• At lower temperature, the melted strands are re-associated; this is called annealing.
20. Chromatin is a loose term
employed for a long
stretch of DNA in
association with histones.
Chromatin is then
further is folded and
compressed to 10,000
fold condensed to
form chromosomes.
Double stranded
DNA is first wound
over histones; this is
called nucleosomes
22. • Higher concentration of
basic amino acids.
• Synthesized in the
cytoplasm migrate to the
nucleus.
• Histone synthesis stops
when DNA synthesis
ceases.
Amino terminal one-third region of
H2A and H2B are lysine rich.
H3 and H4 are arginine rich
histones.
23. • Acetylation of histones leads to activation of transcription, whereas
de-acetylation causes depression of transcription.
• Phosphorylation is associated with condensation of chromosomes.
ADP-ribosylation is associated with DNA repair.
24. • Methylation generally occurs when the gene is repressed. Sometimes
histones are fixed to small ubiquitin related modifier (abbreviated as
Sumo), and the process is called sumoylation.
• Sumoylation of histones is seen during repression of transcription
25. Apart from histones, there are many other special proteins
which will interact at specific regions of DNA.
Helix-turn-helix
motif
Zinc finger motif
Leucine slipper
motif
Helix-loop-helix
motif
Only small regions of the protein make direct contact with the DNA; the rest of the
proteins are involved in other activities, like ligand-binding, interaction with co-
activators and corepressors etc
26. Nucleosomes
• The double stranded DNA wraps
twice around a histone octamer
formed by H2A, H2B, H3 and H4.
This super-twisted helix forms a
spherical particle of 10 nm
diameter; called nucleosome.
• Function: to condense DNA; this
arrangement also stabilises DNA.
27. Further condensation of DNA
• A group of such nucleosomes form
the "DNA fibrils".
• About 6 such fibrils are further
supercoiled to form 30 nm diameter
chromatin fibers or chromatin
threads.
• By this time, the DNA is folded to
about 100 times. Histones stabilise
these fibers.
• In interphase chromosomes,
chromatin fibers condense to
100,000 bp loops, anchored in some
supporting matrix (nuclear matrix).
28. Chromosomes • These fibers are further supercoiled
and condensed to form
chromosomes during the M phase
of cell cycle.
• The packaging of nucleoproteins
within chromosome is specific,
(banding) observed by Giemsa's
staining .
• During metaphase, the DNA can be
seen under a microscope, a
superpacked chromosomes, where
identical sister chromatids are
connected at the centromere.
29. •Depending on the length of the chromosome and the
position of the centromere, the chromosomes are
numbered.
•In humans, there are 23 pairs of chromosomes.
•The centromere is AT rich region, and has repeated
DNA sequences of about one million base pairs in
mammals.
•This region is called kinetochore, which provides the
anchor for the mitotic spindle.
30. Transcriptionally, inactive
chromatin is densely packed and is
called heterochromatin.
Active regions stain less densely
and are called euchromatin.
Euchromatin fills up the majority
of the nucleus.
31. DNA is a very long molecule
• The length (2 meter ) of a DNA molecule is compressed to 8,000 to 10,000 fold to generate the
chromosomes
• Human diploid genome consists of about 7 x 109 base pairs
32.
33. • A Cistron is the unit of genetic expression. It is the biochemical
counterpart of a "gene" of classical genetics. One cistron will code for
one polypeptide chain.
• If a protein contains 4 subunits, these are produced under the direction
of 4 cistrons ("one cistron–one polypeptide" concept).
34. Repeat Sequences of DNA
• Only about 1-2% of the human DNA contain genes; the rest
are silent areas.
• About 1% of DNA is present inside mitochondria.
• There are only about 25,000 to 30,000 protein coding
regions in the human DNA. Thus, most of the DNA is made
of noncoding sequences.
• About 90% of DNA is introns.
• About 50% of DNA is unique or nonrepetitive.
35. • About 30% of the genome consists of repetitive
sequences; they contain 5- 500 base pairs repeated many
times.
[regions are clustered mainly in centromeres and
telomeres; but are seen randomly in other regions also.]
▪ Highly repetitive sequences
▪ Moderately repetitive sequences
▪ Long interspersed repeat sequences (LINEs)
▪ Short interspersed repeat sequences (SINEs).
36. • LINE are 6-7 kbp length and are repeated about 50,000 times.
• SINE are 100-300 bp in length, but are repeated 100,000 times.
[ One such sequence, the Alu family, is repeated about 500,000 times,
and accounts for about 5% of total human DNA.]
Characteristics:
✓ These interspersed repeat sequences are mobile elements, and they
can jump from one region to another region of the genome.
✓They appear to be retroposons, i.e. they can move from one location
to another (transposition) through an RNA intermediate by the action
of reverse transcriptase.
37. • Microsatellite repeat sequences are AC repeats on one strand and TG
on the other strand; such repeats are 100,000 in the genome.
• Trinucleotide sequence repeats are associated with diseases.
CGG repeat sequence -- fragile X syndrome
CAG repeat sequence -- Huntingon's chorea
CTG repeat sequence -- myotonic dystrophy,
CAG repeat sequence -- spinobulbar muscular atrophy.
38.
39.
40.
41.
42. Conformations of DNA double
helix
• The double helical structure of DNA exists in 6 forms A,B,C,D,E and
Z form.
• Among these, B, A & Z forms are important.
• B-form is most predominant form under physiological conditions.
• A-from is also right-handed helix.
• Contains 11 base pairs.
• There is a tilting of the base pairs by 200 away from the central axis.
• Z-form is a left –handed helix and contains 12 base pairs per turn.
44. Bent DNA
• Adenine base containing DNA tracts are rigid & straight.
• Bent conformation of DNA occurs when A-tracts are replaced by
other bases or a collapse of the helix into minor groove of A-tract.
• Bending in DNA structure is due to photochemical damage or
mispairing bases.
• Certain antitumor drugs (e.g.,cisplastin) produce bent structure in
DNA.
• Such changed structure can take up proteins that damage the DNA.
46. Triple-stranded DNA
• Triple stranded DNA formation may occur due to additional hydrogen bonds
between the bases.
• Thymine can selectively form two Hoogsteen hydrogen bonds to the adenine
of A-T pair to form T-A-T.
• Cytosine can also form two hydrogen bonds with guanine of G-C pairs that
results in C-G-C.
• Triple helical structure is less stable than double helix.
• Due to three negatively charged backbone strands in triple helix results in an
increased electrostatic repulsion.
48. Four-stranded DNA
• Polynucleotides with very high content of guanine can form a tetrameric
structure called G-quartets.
• These structures are planar & are connected by Hoogsteen hydrogen
bonds.
• Antiparallel four stranded DNA structures referred to as G-tetraplexes.
• The ends of eukaryotic chromosomes namely telomeres are rich in
guanine,& forms G-tetraplexes.
51. Tertiary structure :
• Supercoils: double-stranded circular DNA
form supercoils if the strands are
underwound (negatively supercoiled) or
overwound (positively supercoiled).
Relaxed supercoiled
Increasing degree of supercoiling
52. • If the strands
are overwound,
form positively
supercoiled;
• If the strands
are underwound,
form negatively
supercoiled.