CSF by Dr. Pandian M, Tutor, Dept of Physiology, DYPMCKOP, MH, This PPT for For all Medical Students
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Introduction The CSF contributes to homeostasis in three main ways Composition of CSF FORMATION OF CEREBROSPINAL FLUID Cerebrospinal Fluid Pressure Cerebrospinal fluid circulation ABSORPTION OF CEREBROSPINAL FLUID The Functions of the Cerebrospinal Fluid Clinical applications References
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Cerebellum and control of postures and movements.pptx
The cerebellum is located behind the pons and below the cerebrum. It coordinates voluntary movement, posture, and balance by regulating muscle tone and stretch reflexes. Damage results in clumsy movements and gait issues. It has three functional subdivisions and influences other systems through projections. The cerebellum maintains posture and equilibrium through feedback from vestibular and proprioceptive systems and projects to brainstem and spinal cord nuclei. It controls voluntary movements through open and closed feedback loops with motor cortex.
CSF ( Cerebrospinal fluid physiology) circulation
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless body fluid found within the tissue that surrounds the brain and spinal cord of all vertebrates. It replaces the body fluid found outside the cells of all bilateral animals.
The CSF is produced by specialized ependymal cells in the choroid plexuses of the ventricles of the brain, and absorbed in the arachnoid granulations. There is about 125 mL of CSF at any one time, and about 500 mL is generated every day. CSF acts as a cushion or buffer, providing basic mechanical and immunological protection to the brain inside the skull. CSF also serves a vital function in the cerebral autoregulation of cerebral blood flow.
The CSF occupies the subarachnoid space (between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater) and the ventricular system around and inside the brain and spinal cord. It fills the ventricles of the brain, cisterns, and sulci, as well as the central canal of the spinal cord. There is also a connection from the subarachnoid space to the bony labyrinth of the inner ear via the peri lymphatic duct where the perilymph is continuous with the cerebrospinal fluid. The ependymal cells of the choroid plexuses have multiple motile cilia on their apical surfaces that beat to move the CSF through the ventricles.
A sample of CSF can be taken via lumbar puncture. This can reveal the intracranial pressure, as well as indicate diseases including infections of the brain or its surrounding meninges.
Although noted by Hippocrates it was forgotten for centuries. It was discovered in the 18th century by Emanuel Swedenborg. In 1914 Harvey Cushing demonstrated that the CSF was secreted by the choroid plexus.
Spinal cord
The document provides an overview of the anatomy, internal structure, blood supply, and functional organization of the spinal cord. Key points include:
- The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum to L1-L2 and is segmented into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral regions.
- It has a butterfly-shaped gray matter H-shape surrounded by white matter tracts that contain ascending and descending nerve fibers.
- The principal blood supply comes from the anterior and posterior spinal arteries along with segmental radicular arteries like the artery of Adamkiewicz.
- The spinal cord has a segmental organization corresponding to 31 pairs of spinal nerves that mediate motor and sensory functions.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is formed in the brain ventricles and circulates around the brain and spinal cord. It is produced at a rate of around 500-600 ml per day, primarily by the choroid plexuses in the ventricles. CSF is absorbed into the venous blood through arachnoid villi and lymphatic vessels. It acts as a cushion and protects the brain from mechanical injury. CSF also helps remove waste from the brain and maintain homeostasis. Abnormal CSF accumulation can cause hydrocephalus, while lumbar puncture allows sampling of CSF for analysis.
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The document discusses cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), including its location in the brain and spinal cord, how it is produced and circulated, its composition and functions. CSF acts as a cushion and protects the brain, removes waste, and transports nutrients and chemicals. It is produced in the brain's ventricles and circulates through the ventricles and spinal cord before being reabsorbed or drained into veins. Abnormalities in CSF production or circulation can cause hydrocephalus. A lumbar puncture is described as a way to collect and analyze CSF samples for diagnostic purposes.
Bp regulation
This document discusses the regulation of blood pressure on short, intermediate, and long term timescales.
Short term regulation occurs over seconds to minutes and involves baroreceptors, chemoreceptors, and the central nervous system ischemic response. Intermediate regulation over minutes to hours is mediated by capillary fluid shifts and stress relaxation in blood vessels. Long term regulation over days to years involves the renal body fluid mechanism and renin-angiotensin system to control extracellular fluid levels and blood pressure.
Csf & ventricles
The document summarizes the anatomy and physiology of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It describes the three layers of meninges that surround and protect the brain and spinal cord. CSF is produced by choroid plexuses within the ventricles and circulates through the ventricular system before being absorbed into veins. It acts as a cushion and supports the brain, distributes impacts, maintains pressure, and transports nutrients and waste. The blood-brain barrier and blood-CSF barrier regulate molecular exchange between blood and CSF/brain tissue.
NEUROANATOMY OF BRAINSTEM
BRAINSTEM
The Brainstem lies at the base of the brain and the top of the spinal cord.
The brainstem is located in the posterior cranial fossa.
The brainstem is the structure that connects the cerebrum of the brain to the spinal cord and cerebellum.
Provides a pathway for tracts running between higher and lower neural centers.
Divided into 3 major divisions:
midbrain,
pons, and
medulla oblongata.
It is responsible for many vital functions of life, such as breathing, consciousness, blood pressure, heart rate, and sleep.
It contains many critical collections of white and grey matter.
The grey matter within the brainstem consists of nerve cell bodies and form many important brainstem nuclei. Ten of the twelve cranial nerves arise from their cranial nerve nuclei in the brainstem.
The white matter tracts of the brainstem include axons of nerves traversing their course to different structures. These tracts travel both to the brain (afferent) and from the brain (efferent) such as the somatosensory pathways and the corticospinal tracts, respectively.
Mid Brain
The midbrain is continuous with the cerebral hemisphere.
The upper posterior (i.e. rear) portion of the midbrain is called the tectum, which means "roof."
The surface of the tectum is covered with four bumps representing two paired structures: the superior and inferior colliculi.
The superior colliculi are involved in eye movements and visual processing, while the inferior colliculi are involved in auditory processing.
Another important nucleus, the substantia nigra, is located here.
The substantia nigra is rich in dopamine neurons and is considered part of the basal ganglia.
Pons
An important pathway for tracts that run from the cerebrum down to the medulla and spinal cord, as well as for tracts that travel up into the brain.
It also forms important connections with the cerebellum via fibre bundles known as the cerebellar peduncles.
Posteriorly, the pons and medulla are separated from the cerebellum by the fourth ventricle.
Home to several nuclei for cranial nerves.
Medulla
The point where the brainstem connects to the spinal cord.
Contains a nucleus called the nucleus of the solitary tract that is crucial for our survival (receives information about blood flow, along with information about levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood, from the heart and major blood vessels).
When this information suggests a discordance with bodily needs (e.g. blood pressure is too low), there are reflexive actions initiated in the nucleus of the solitary tract to bring things back to within the desired range.
Blood Supply
The brain stem receives its blood supply exclusively from the posterior circulation, including the vertebrae and basilar artery.
The medulla receives its blood supply from the vertebral via medial and lateral perforating arteries.
The pons and midbrain receive their blood from the basilar via the medial and lateral perforating arteries.
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CSF ( Cerebrospinal fluid physiology) circulation
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear, colorless body fluid found within the tissue that surrounds the brain and spinal cord of all vertebrates. It replaces the body fluid found outside the cells of all bilateral animals.
The CSF is produced by specialized ependymal cells in the choroid plexuses of the ventricles of the brain, and absorbed in the arachnoid granulations. There is about 125 mL of CSF at any one time, and about 500 mL is generated every day. CSF acts as a cushion or buffer, providing basic mechanical and immunological protection to the brain inside the skull. CSF also serves a vital function in the cerebral autoregulation of cerebral blood flow.
The CSF occupies the subarachnoid space (between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater) and the ventricular system around and inside the brain and spinal cord. It fills the ventricles of the brain, cisterns, and sulci, as well as the central canal of the spinal cord. There is also a connection from the subarachnoid space to the bony labyrinth of the inner ear via the peri lymphatic duct where the perilymph is continuous with the cerebrospinal fluid. The ependymal cells of the choroid plexuses have multiple motile cilia on their apical surfaces that beat to move the CSF through the ventricles.
A sample of CSF can be taken via lumbar puncture. This can reveal the intracranial pressure, as well as indicate diseases including infections of the brain or its surrounding meninges.
Although noted by Hippocrates it was forgotten for centuries. It was discovered in the 18th century by Emanuel Swedenborg. In 1914 Harvey Cushing demonstrated that the CSF was secreted by the choroid plexus.
Spinal cord
The document provides an overview of the anatomy, internal structure, blood supply, and functional organization of the spinal cord. Key points include:
- The spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum to L1-L2 and is segmented into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral regions.
- It has a butterfly-shaped gray matter H-shape surrounded by white matter tracts that contain ascending and descending nerve fibers.
- The principal blood supply comes from the anterior and posterior spinal arteries along with segmental radicular arteries like the artery of Adamkiewicz.
- The spinal cord has a segmental organization corresponding to 31 pairs of spinal nerves that mediate motor and sensory functions.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is formed in the brain ventricles and circulates around the brain and spinal cord. It is produced at a rate of around 500-600 ml per day, primarily by the choroid plexuses in the ventricles. CSF is absorbed into the venous blood through arachnoid villi and lymphatic vessels. It acts as a cushion and protects the brain from mechanical injury. CSF also helps remove waste from the brain and maintain homeostasis. Abnormal CSF accumulation can cause hydrocephalus, while lumbar puncture allows sampling of CSF for analysis.
Cerebrospinal fluid
The document discusses cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), including its location in the brain and spinal cord, how it is produced and circulated, its composition and functions. CSF acts as a cushion and protects the brain, removes waste, and transports nutrients and chemicals. It is produced in the brain's ventricles and circulates through the ventricles and spinal cord before being reabsorbed or drained into veins. Abnormalities in CSF production or circulation can cause hydrocephalus. A lumbar puncture is described as a way to collect and analyze CSF samples for diagnostic purposes.
Bp regulation
This document discusses the regulation of blood pressure on short, intermediate, and long term timescales.
Short term regulation occurs over seconds to minutes and involves baroreceptors, chemoreceptors, and the central nervous system ischemic response. Intermediate regulation over minutes to hours is mediated by capillary fluid shifts and stress relaxation in blood vessels. Long term regulation over days to years involves the renal body fluid mechanism and renin-angiotensin system to control extracellular fluid levels and blood pressure.
Csf & ventricles
The document summarizes the anatomy and physiology of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It describes the three layers of meninges that surround and protect the brain and spinal cord. CSF is produced by choroid plexuses within the ventricles and circulates through the ventricular system before being absorbed into veins. It acts as a cushion and supports the brain, distributes impacts, maintains pressure, and transports nutrients and waste. The blood-brain barrier and blood-CSF barrier regulate molecular exchange between blood and CSF/brain tissue.
NEUROANATOMY OF BRAINSTEM
BRAINSTEM
The Brainstem lies at the base of the brain and the top of the spinal cord.
The brainstem is located in the posterior cranial fossa.
The brainstem is the structure that connects the cerebrum of the brain to the spinal cord and cerebellum.
Provides a pathway for tracts running between higher and lower neural centers.
Divided into 3 major divisions:
midbrain,
pons, and
medulla oblongata.
It is responsible for many vital functions of life, such as breathing, consciousness, blood pressure, heart rate, and sleep.
It contains many critical collections of white and grey matter.
The grey matter within the brainstem consists of nerve cell bodies and form many important brainstem nuclei. Ten of the twelve cranial nerves arise from their cranial nerve nuclei in the brainstem.
The white matter tracts of the brainstem include axons of nerves traversing their course to different structures. These tracts travel both to the brain (afferent) and from the brain (efferent) such as the somatosensory pathways and the corticospinal tracts, respectively.
Mid Brain
The midbrain is continuous with the cerebral hemisphere.
The upper posterior (i.e. rear) portion of the midbrain is called the tectum, which means "roof."
The surface of the tectum is covered with four bumps representing two paired structures: the superior and inferior colliculi.
The superior colliculi are involved in eye movements and visual processing, while the inferior colliculi are involved in auditory processing.
Another important nucleus, the substantia nigra, is located here.
The substantia nigra is rich in dopamine neurons and is considered part of the basal ganglia.
Pons
An important pathway for tracts that run from the cerebrum down to the medulla and spinal cord, as well as for tracts that travel up into the brain.
It also forms important connections with the cerebellum via fibre bundles known as the cerebellar peduncles.
Posteriorly, the pons and medulla are separated from the cerebellum by the fourth ventricle.
Home to several nuclei for cranial nerves.
Medulla
The point where the brainstem connects to the spinal cord.
Contains a nucleus called the nucleus of the solitary tract that is crucial for our survival (receives information about blood flow, along with information about levels of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood, from the heart and major blood vessels).
When this information suggests a discordance with bodily needs (e.g. blood pressure is too low), there are reflexive actions initiated in the nucleus of the solitary tract to bring things back to within the desired range.
Blood Supply
The brain stem receives its blood supply exclusively from the posterior circulation, including the vertebrae and basilar artery.
The medulla receives its blood supply from the vertebral via medial and lateral perforating arteries.
The pons and midbrain receive their blood from the basilar via the medial and lateral perforating arteries.
CSF physiology
This document discusses cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) physiology and summarizes a presentation given by Dr. Kaushal Deep Singh. It outlines the history of CSF discovery. CSF is formed primarily by the choroid plexuses in the ventricles and circulates through the ventricles and subarachnoid spaces before being reabsorbed into the venous sinuses. The composition, circulation, and factors regulating CSF formation and reabsorption are described. Alterations in CSF dynamics can occur in various pathologies.
Juxtaglomerular apparatus (The Guyton and Hall physiology)
The juxtaglomerular apparatus is a specialized organ located near the glomerulus of each nephron. It consists of four main parts: the macula densa, extraglomerular mesangial cells, glomerular mesangial cells, and juxtaglomerular cells. The juxtaglomerular apparatus secretes two important hormones, renin and prostaglandin. Renin plays a key role in regulating blood pressure as part of the renin-angiotensin system. The secretion of renin is stimulated by decreases in arterial blood pressure, extracellular fluid volume, sodium chloride levels at the macula densa, and increased sympathetic activity.
Posterior triangle of neck - Powerpoint lecture notes by Dr.N.Mugunthan.
The posterior triangle of the neck is bounded by the sternocleidomastoid muscle anteriorly and the trapezius muscle posteriorly. It is subdivided into the occipital and subclavian triangles by the omohyoid muscle. The posterior triangle contains nerves like the accessory nerve and branches of the brachial plexus, blood vessels like the external jugular vein and subclavian artery, and lymph nodes. Knowledge of the anatomy of the posterior triangle is important for procedures like brachial plexus blocks and catheterization of the external jugular vein.
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The document discusses the anatomy and functional areas of the cerebral cortex. It describes the main cerebral sulci and gyri, as well as the primary motor areas, sensory areas, and psychical areas. The primary motor area controls voluntary movement, while sensory areas include the primary somesthetic, visual, and auditory areas. Speech functions are performed by sensory and motor speech centers located in the dominant hemisphere.
Hypothalamus and its function
The hypothalamus is a small cone-shaped structure located below the thalamus that controls important autonomic and endocrine functions. It contains several nuclei that regulate processes like circadian rhythms, temperature control, hormone production, and behaviors. The hypothalamus connects the nervous system to the endocrine system by secreting hormones that stimulate or inhibit pituitary hormone release, regulating other endocrine glands. Key functions include cardiovascular, temperature and fluid regulation, the hunger/thirst response, and behaviors like rage and reward responses.
The synapse
This document provides an overview of synapses, including their definition, structure, function, types of transmission (electrical vs. chemical), neurotransmitters, and various properties like synaptic delay, fatigue, summation, and more. It discusses excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters and how convergence and divergence allow signals to be dispersed or combined. Clinical implications are that problems with synaptic transmission can cause diseases like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's.
Blood brain barrier
The document discusses the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which was first described in 1882. The BBB protects the central nervous system from toxins and fluctuations in blood by stabilizing the internal environment of the brain and cerebrospinal fluid. Diseases like meningitis, brain abscesses, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer's can occur if the BBB is compromised.
Cerebrum
cerebrum, sulci and gyri of cerebrum, lobes of cerebrum, frontal lobe , parietal lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe, sulci and gyri presnet in each lobes, and the functional areas , of cerebrum, brodmann areas of cerebrum, borders and surfaces of cerebrum, insula,
Synapse
This document provides information about synapses and synaptic transmission in the central nervous system (CNS). It defines a synapse as the junction between two neurons and discusses the key anatomical structures involved, including the presynaptic terminal, synaptic cleft, and postsynaptic membrane. It describes how an action potential in the presynaptic neuron leads to calcium ion influx and neurotransmitter release into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, which can result in excitation via EPSPs or inhibition via IPSPs depending on the specific neurotransmitter and receptor type involved. Higher-level functions such as learning and memory emerge from the complex integration of signals at numerous synapses throughout the CNS neural circuits.
Cerebrospinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear liquid produced by specialized cells in the brain that acts as a cushion and protects the brain. It circulates through the brain and spinal cord and can be analyzed to diagnose conditions. The document discusses the history and contributors to the understanding of CSF, its composition, regulation and circulation, functions in protecting and nourishing the brain, methods for analyzing CSF including lumbar puncture, and pathologies involving excess CSF or leaks including hydrocephalus and meningitis.
Cerebrospinal fluid
A detail on CSF
INTRODUCTION
PROPERTIES
COMPOSITION
FORMATION OF (CSF)
CSF is formed by choroid plexuses, situated with in the ventricles.
Choroid plexuses are tuft of capillaries present inside the ventricles.
A large amount of CSF is formed in the lateral ventricles.
SUBSTANCES AFFECTING THE FORMATION OF (CSF)
PILOCARPINE, extract of pituitary gland stimulate the secretion of CSF.
Injection of isotonic saline also stimulates CSF formation.
Injection of hypotonic saline increases CSF formation.
Hypertonic saline decreases CSF formation and CSF pressure.
ABSORPTION OF (CSF)
CSF is mostly by the archnoid villi into dural sinuses and spinal veins.
Small amount is absorbed along the perineural spaces into cervical lymphatics and into perivascular spaces.
Normally , about 500 mL of CSF is formed everyday and an equal amount is absorbed.
FUNCTIONS OF (CSF)
COLLECTION OF CSF
APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
Neural regulation of Respiration
This document discusses the neural regulation of respiration. It begins by outlining the respiratory centers located in the brainstem, including the dorsal respiratory group, ventral respiratory group, pneumotaxic center, and apneustic center. These centers generate the rhythmic pattern of breathing and control the rate and depth of respiration. The document then describes various inputs that affect the respiratory centers, including peripheral chemoreceptors, lung stretch receptors, and irritant receptors. It concludes by explaining how disrupting different parts of the respiratory control system, such as through brainstem transections or anesthesia overdose, can impact breathing patterns and potentially cause respiratory arrest.
Ventricles & CSF
The brain contains four interconnected fluid-filled cavities called ventricles that produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The ventricles include the left and right lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, and the fourth ventricle. CSF is produced by choroid plexus tissue within the ventricles and flows between the ventricles through connecting openings before circulating around the brain and spinal cord to provide cushioning. Blockages within the ventricles or connections between them can cause excess fluid buildup and issues like hydrocephalus.
ASCENDING TRACTS
The document discusses the ascending tracts and posterior column pathway in the spinal cord. It provides details on:
1) The medial lemniscus system carries sensations for fine touch, pressure, and vibration from receptors through the dorsal roots and fasciculus gracilis and cuneatus tracts in the spinal cord.
2) Fibers from the tracts synapse in the medulla and cross over before ascending to the thalamus and primary sensory cortex.
3) The posterior column pathway conveys proprioception, vibration, discriminative touch, weight discrimination and stereognosis signals up the spinal cord within the posterior column tracts.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary body functions like heart rate, respiration, digestion and more. It has two divisions:
The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for "fight or flight" through responses like increased heart rate and dilated pupils. It uses norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter.
The parasympathetic nervous system helps the body "rest and digest" with functions like digestion, salivation and pupil constriction. It uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter.
Together these two divisions work to maintain homeostasis and control internal organs through a two-neuron pathway, with cell bodies located in the spinal cord or brainstem and ganglia between pre- and postganglionic neurons.
Renal blood flow and its regulation
A comprehensive presentation on glomerular filtration rate (GFR) & renal blood flow and how these entities are impacted by intrinsic and extrinsic regulation.
This was presented by the author in the finals of the physiology seminar presentation in medical school.
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
This document discusses glomerular filtration and the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). It defines glomerular filtration as the process where plasma filters through the glomerular capillaries into Bowman's capsule, the first step in urine formation. The GFR is the rate at which plasma is filtered and is an important measurement of kidney function. Normal GFR is about 125 mL/min. The kidneys filter the plasma around 60 times per day. Renal blood flow to the kidneys is high at around 1200 mL/min and is regulated by the afferent and efferent arterioles. Glomerular filtration is governed by the filtration coefficient and Starling forces of hydrostatic and oncotic pressures
Csf formation, absorption and circulation
The cerebrospinal fluid is produced by the choroid plexus in the brain ventricles at a rate of around 500ml per day in adults. It circulates through the ventricles and subarachnoid space around the brain and spinal cord, where it acts as a cushion and aids in waste removal. The composition of CSF differs slightly from blood serum, with varying concentrations of proteins, glucose, and electrolytes. Increased intracranial pressure can result from conditions that enlarge the brain or increase CSF volume such as tumors, edema, infections, or obstructions in CSF flow and reabsorption. Lumbar puncture allows analysis of CSF for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.
Cerebellum Physiology
The cerebellum plays an important role in motor control and coordination. It receives input from various sources, including the spinal cord, brainstem, and cerebral cortex. This input is processed within the cerebellar cortex and nuclei. The cerebellum then sends output to motor areas of the brainstem and cerebral cortex to coordinate movement, balance, and posture. It acts as a comparator, receiving feedback on actual movements and comparing them to intended movements, in order to calibrate motor output and prevent overshooting during voluntary motor acts such as walking and running. Damage to the cerebellum can cause ataxia or lack of coordination.
Posterior Cranial Fossa with Cranial Nerves Relation
The posterior cranial fossa contains the brainstem and cerebellum. It houses the cerebellum, medulla, and pons. It receives 11 of the 12 cranial nerves, excluding the olfactory nerve. The cranial nerve nuclei are arranged with efferent nuclei medially and sensory nuclei laterally. From medial to lateral the general arrangement is: general somatic efferent, special visceral efferent, general visceral efferent, general visceral afferent, special visceral afferent, general sensory afferent, and special somatic afferent nuclei. The document provides details on the specific cranial nerves and nuclei in the brainstem.
cerebrospinal fluid .pptx
The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) provides mechanical, chemical, and circulatory protection to the brain and spinal cord. It is formed by the choroid plexuses in the ventricles at a rate of around 550 ml per day, circulates through the ventricles and subarachnoid space, and is absorbed by arachnoid villi into venous sinuses. Disorders like hydrocephalus can occur if CSF circulation is obstructed or production/absorption is abnormal. Lumbar puncture and cisternal puncture are used to collect CSF samples or administer drugs into the CSF pathways.
CSF formation & circulation
Cerebrospinal fluid is formed primarily by the choroid plexuses in the ventricles through active transport of sodium ions, which pulls in water and other ions through osmosis. It circulates from the ventricles through the brain and spinal cord, bathing the central nervous system. CSF is absorbed into the venous blood through arachnoid villi in the dural sinuses. The blood-brain and blood-CSF barriers protect the brain by restricting the passage of large molecules from blood to CSF and brain tissue. CSF acts as a cushion and regulates pressure while draining metabolites and providing limited nutrients to the brain. Hydrocephalus is an excess accumulation of CSF due to blocked flow or absorption.
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CSF physiology
This document discusses cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) physiology and summarizes a presentation given by Dr. Kaushal Deep Singh. It outlines the history of CSF discovery. CSF is formed primarily by the choroid plexuses in the ventricles and circulates through the ventricles and subarachnoid spaces before being reabsorbed into the venous sinuses. The composition, circulation, and factors regulating CSF formation and reabsorption are described. Alterations in CSF dynamics can occur in various pathologies.
Juxtaglomerular apparatus (The Guyton and Hall physiology)
The juxtaglomerular apparatus is a specialized organ located near the glomerulus of each nephron. It consists of four main parts: the macula densa, extraglomerular mesangial cells, glomerular mesangial cells, and juxtaglomerular cells. The juxtaglomerular apparatus secretes two important hormones, renin and prostaglandin. Renin plays a key role in regulating blood pressure as part of the renin-angiotensin system. The secretion of renin is stimulated by decreases in arterial blood pressure, extracellular fluid volume, sodium chloride levels at the macula densa, and increased sympathetic activity.
Posterior triangle of neck - Powerpoint lecture notes by Dr.N.Mugunthan.
The posterior triangle of the neck is bounded by the sternocleidomastoid muscle anteriorly and the trapezius muscle posteriorly. It is subdivided into the occipital and subclavian triangles by the omohyoid muscle. The posterior triangle contains nerves like the accessory nerve and branches of the brachial plexus, blood vessels like the external jugular vein and subclavian artery, and lymph nodes. Knowledge of the anatomy of the posterior triangle is important for procedures like brachial plexus blocks and catheterization of the external jugular vein.
Sulci,Gyri & Functional areas of cerebrum Dr.N.Mugunthan.M.S
The document discusses the anatomy and functional areas of the cerebral cortex. It describes the main cerebral sulci and gyri, as well as the primary motor areas, sensory areas, and psychical areas. The primary motor area controls voluntary movement, while sensory areas include the primary somesthetic, visual, and auditory areas. Speech functions are performed by sensory and motor speech centers located in the dominant hemisphere.
Hypothalamus and its function
The hypothalamus is a small cone-shaped structure located below the thalamus that controls important autonomic and endocrine functions. It contains several nuclei that regulate processes like circadian rhythms, temperature control, hormone production, and behaviors. The hypothalamus connects the nervous system to the endocrine system by secreting hormones that stimulate or inhibit pituitary hormone release, regulating other endocrine glands. Key functions include cardiovascular, temperature and fluid regulation, the hunger/thirst response, and behaviors like rage and reward responses.
The synapse
This document provides an overview of synapses, including their definition, structure, function, types of transmission (electrical vs. chemical), neurotransmitters, and various properties like synaptic delay, fatigue, summation, and more. It discusses excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters and how convergence and divergence allow signals to be dispersed or combined. Clinical implications are that problems with synaptic transmission can cause diseases like Parkinson's and Alzheimer's.
Blood brain barrier
The document discusses the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which was first described in 1882. The BBB protects the central nervous system from toxins and fluctuations in blood by stabilizing the internal environment of the brain and cerebrospinal fluid. Diseases like meningitis, brain abscesses, epilepsy, multiple sclerosis, and Alzheimer's can occur if the BBB is compromised.
Cerebrum
cerebrum, sulci and gyri of cerebrum, lobes of cerebrum, frontal lobe , parietal lobe, temporal lobe and occipital lobe, sulci and gyri presnet in each lobes, and the functional areas , of cerebrum, brodmann areas of cerebrum, borders and surfaces of cerebrum, insula,
Synapse
This document provides information about synapses and synaptic transmission in the central nervous system (CNS). It defines a synapse as the junction between two neurons and discusses the key anatomical structures involved, including the presynaptic terminal, synaptic cleft, and postsynaptic membrane. It describes how an action potential in the presynaptic neuron leads to calcium ion influx and neurotransmitter release into the synaptic cleft. The neurotransmitters then bind to receptors on the postsynaptic membrane, which can result in excitation via EPSPs or inhibition via IPSPs depending on the specific neurotransmitter and receptor type involved. Higher-level functions such as learning and memory emerge from the complex integration of signals at numerous synapses throughout the CNS neural circuits.
Cerebrospinal fluid
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a clear liquid produced by specialized cells in the brain that acts as a cushion and protects the brain. It circulates through the brain and spinal cord and can be analyzed to diagnose conditions. The document discusses the history and contributors to the understanding of CSF, its composition, regulation and circulation, functions in protecting and nourishing the brain, methods for analyzing CSF including lumbar puncture, and pathologies involving excess CSF or leaks including hydrocephalus and meningitis.
Cerebrospinal fluid
A detail on CSF
INTRODUCTION
PROPERTIES
COMPOSITION
FORMATION OF (CSF)
CSF is formed by choroid plexuses, situated with in the ventricles.
Choroid plexuses are tuft of capillaries present inside the ventricles.
A large amount of CSF is formed in the lateral ventricles.
SUBSTANCES AFFECTING THE FORMATION OF (CSF)
PILOCARPINE, extract of pituitary gland stimulate the secretion of CSF.
Injection of isotonic saline also stimulates CSF formation.
Injection of hypotonic saline increases CSF formation.
Hypertonic saline decreases CSF formation and CSF pressure.
ABSORPTION OF (CSF)
CSF is mostly by the archnoid villi into dural sinuses and spinal veins.
Small amount is absorbed along the perineural spaces into cervical lymphatics and into perivascular spaces.
Normally , about 500 mL of CSF is formed everyday and an equal amount is absorbed.
FUNCTIONS OF (CSF)
COLLECTION OF CSF
APPLIED PHYSIOLOGY
Neural regulation of Respiration
This document discusses the neural regulation of respiration. It begins by outlining the respiratory centers located in the brainstem, including the dorsal respiratory group, ventral respiratory group, pneumotaxic center, and apneustic center. These centers generate the rhythmic pattern of breathing and control the rate and depth of respiration. The document then describes various inputs that affect the respiratory centers, including peripheral chemoreceptors, lung stretch receptors, and irritant receptors. It concludes by explaining how disrupting different parts of the respiratory control system, such as through brainstem transections or anesthesia overdose, can impact breathing patterns and potentially cause respiratory arrest.
Ventricles & CSF
The brain contains four interconnected fluid-filled cavities called ventricles that produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). The ventricles include the left and right lateral ventricles, the third ventricle, and the fourth ventricle. CSF is produced by choroid plexus tissue within the ventricles and flows between the ventricles through connecting openings before circulating around the brain and spinal cord to provide cushioning. Blockages within the ventricles or connections between them can cause excess fluid buildup and issues like hydrocephalus.
ASCENDING TRACTS
The document discusses the ascending tracts and posterior column pathway in the spinal cord. It provides details on:
1) The medial lemniscus system carries sensations for fine touch, pressure, and vibration from receptors through the dorsal roots and fasciculus gracilis and cuneatus tracts in the spinal cord.
2) Fibers from the tracts synapse in the medulla and cross over before ascending to the thalamus and primary sensory cortex.
3) The posterior column pathway conveys proprioception, vibration, discriminative touch, weight discrimination and stereognosis signals up the spinal cord within the posterior column tracts.
AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary body functions like heart rate, respiration, digestion and more. It has two divisions:
The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for "fight or flight" through responses like increased heart rate and dilated pupils. It uses norepinephrine as a neurotransmitter.
The parasympathetic nervous system helps the body "rest and digest" with functions like digestion, salivation and pupil constriction. It uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter.
Together these two divisions work to maintain homeostasis and control internal organs through a two-neuron pathway, with cell bodies located in the spinal cord or brainstem and ganglia between pre- and postganglionic neurons.
Renal blood flow and its regulation
A comprehensive presentation on glomerular filtration rate (GFR) & renal blood flow and how these entities are impacted by intrinsic and extrinsic regulation.
This was presented by the author in the finals of the physiology seminar presentation in medical school.
Glomerular filtration rate (GFR)
This document discusses glomerular filtration and the glomerular filtration rate (GFR). It defines glomerular filtration as the process where plasma filters through the glomerular capillaries into Bowman's capsule, the first step in urine formation. The GFR is the rate at which plasma is filtered and is an important measurement of kidney function. Normal GFR is about 125 mL/min. The kidneys filter the plasma around 60 times per day. Renal blood flow to the kidneys is high at around 1200 mL/min and is regulated by the afferent and efferent arterioles. Glomerular filtration is governed by the filtration coefficient and Starling forces of hydrostatic and oncotic pressures
Csf formation, absorption and circulation
The cerebrospinal fluid is produced by the choroid plexus in the brain ventricles at a rate of around 500ml per day in adults. It circulates through the ventricles and subarachnoid space around the brain and spinal cord, where it acts as a cushion and aids in waste removal. The composition of CSF differs slightly from blood serum, with varying concentrations of proteins, glucose, and electrolytes. Increased intracranial pressure can result from conditions that enlarge the brain or increase CSF volume such as tumors, edema, infections, or obstructions in CSF flow and reabsorption. Lumbar puncture allows analysis of CSF for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.
Cerebellum Physiology
The cerebellum plays an important role in motor control and coordination. It receives input from various sources, including the spinal cord, brainstem, and cerebral cortex. This input is processed within the cerebellar cortex and nuclei. The cerebellum then sends output to motor areas of the brainstem and cerebral cortex to coordinate movement, balance, and posture. It acts as a comparator, receiving feedback on actual movements and comparing them to intended movements, in order to calibrate motor output and prevent overshooting during voluntary motor acts such as walking and running. Damage to the cerebellum can cause ataxia or lack of coordination.
Posterior Cranial Fossa with Cranial Nerves Relation
The posterior cranial fossa contains the brainstem and cerebellum. It houses the cerebellum, medulla, and pons. It receives 11 of the 12 cranial nerves, excluding the olfactory nerve. The cranial nerve nuclei are arranged with efferent nuclei medially and sensory nuclei laterally. From medial to lateral the general arrangement is: general somatic efferent, special visceral efferent, general visceral efferent, general visceral afferent, special visceral afferent, general sensory afferent, and special somatic afferent nuclei. The document provides details on the specific cranial nerves and nuclei in the brainstem.
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Posterior Cranial Fossa with Cranial Nerves Relation
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Similar to CSF by Dr. Pandian M, Tutor, Dept of Physiology, DYPMCKOP, MH, This PPT for For all Medical Students
cerebrospinal fluid .pptx
The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) provides mechanical, chemical, and circulatory protection to the brain and spinal cord. It is formed by the choroid plexuses in the ventricles at a rate of around 550 ml per day, circulates through the ventricles and subarachnoid space, and is absorbed by arachnoid villi into venous sinuses. Disorders like hydrocephalus can occur if CSF circulation is obstructed or production/absorption is abnormal. Lumbar puncture and cisternal puncture are used to collect CSF samples or administer drugs into the CSF pathways.
CSF formation & circulation
Cerebrospinal fluid is formed primarily by the choroid plexuses in the ventricles through active transport of sodium ions, which pulls in water and other ions through osmosis. It circulates from the ventricles through the brain and spinal cord, bathing the central nervous system. CSF is absorbed into the venous blood through arachnoid villi in the dural sinuses. The blood-brain and blood-CSF barriers protect the brain by restricting the passage of large molecules from blood to CSF and brain tissue. CSF acts as a cushion and regulates pressure while draining metabolites and providing limited nutrients to the brain. Hydrocephalus is an excess accumulation of CSF due to blocked flow or absorption.
CSF SEMINAR.pptx
Cerebrospinal fluid , circulation, lumbar puncture, disease, pathophysiology from Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics
CSF examination
The document provides information about cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) examination including CSF composition, functions, how it is formed and drained, significant features, indications for examination, collection process, and laboratory diagnosis. Key points include:
- CSF acts as a cushion and removes waste from the brain and spinal cord. It is produced by choroid plexus and contains glucose, electrolytes, and few cells.
- Laboratory diagnosis of CSF includes physical, microscopic, and chemical examination to detect cells, proteins, glucose and other analytes that can indicate conditions like meningitis.
- CSF is collected via lumbar puncture for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes and analyzed for appearance, pressure, cell count and differentials to identify issues like
CSF imaging
The document provides information on CSF nuclear imaging, including:
1. The physiology and anatomy of CSF circulation and production in the brain ventricles.
2. Radiopharmaceuticals used for CSF imaging like radiolabeled serum albumin and DTPA, and their properties.
3. Clinical applications of CSF imaging like evaluating CSF circulation in cisternography for hydrocephalus and detecting CSF leaks.
physiology of aqueoushumor-140302140543-phpapp01 (1).pptx
1. The document discusses the physiology of aqueous humor, which is a clear fluid that fills the anterior and posterior chambers of the eye. It is produced by the ciliary processes at a rate of 1.5-4.5 μl/min and exits through the trabecular meshwork.
2. Aqueous humor is formed through diffusion, ultrafiltration, and active transport processes. Its composition is similar to plasma but with higher concentrations of ascorbic acid.
3. Aqueous humor exits the eye through two pathways - the conventional trabecular route through the trabecular meshwork and Schlemm's canal, and the unconventional uveoscleral route through the iris root
Hydrocephalus shunts
Hydrocephalus is caused by an accumulation of cerebral spinal fluid in the ventricles of the brain. It can be congenital or acquired through events like hemorrhage or brain tumors. Shunt systems are commonly used to treat hydrocephalus by diverting CSF from the ventricles to the abdominal cavity through a series of catheters and a pressure-regulating valve. However, shunts have high failure rates, requiring multiple revision surgeries. Alternatives like endoscopic third ventriculostomy may help in some cases but have lower success rates than shunts, especially in infants.
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID IN HEALTH AND DISEASE.pptx
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) surrounds the brain and spinal cord. It is produced by the choroid plexus and circulates in the subarachnoid space. CSF provides cushioning and maintains chemical homeostasis in the central nervous system. CSF analysis involves examination of properties like glucose, protein, white blood cells, and immunoglobulins to diagnose conditions like meningitis, tumors, and neurological diseases. Abnormalities in CSF components provide clues to underlying pathology in the brain and spinal cord.
Cerebrospinal Fluid Blood Brain Barrier.ppt
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is produced by choroid plexuses in the ventricles and circulates through the brain and spinal cord, providing nutrients and protection. It is absorbed through arachnoid villi into venous sinuses. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) protects the brain by restricting diffusion between blood vessels and brain tissue through tight junctions in brain capillaries. Disruption of CSF circulation or the BBB can lead to conditions like hydrocephalus or brain edema.
Csf circulation
The document summarizes key aspects of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF):
- CSF is produced by the choroid plexus in the ventricles and circulates through the brain and spinal cord cavities. It is absorbed into venous blood through arachnoid villi.
- Around 600 ml of CSF is produced and fully replaced daily. It acts as a cushion and maintains homeostasis in the central nervous system.
- A lumbar puncture can examine CSF pressure, composition, cell count, glucose, and protein levels to evaluate for conditions like infection, inflammation, and neurological diseases. Characteristic patterns provide clues to different conditions.
CSF DYNAMICS1.pptx
This document provides an overview of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) dynamics and regulation of cerebral blood flow and intracranial pressure. It discusses the historical understanding of volume regulation inside the skull, CSF physiology including production and circulation, and the relationship between cerebral blood flow, intracranial pressure, and blood pressure. Key concepts discussed include the Monro-Kellie doctrine which states that the brain is housed in a fixed skull, and the regulation of intracranial components including CSF, blood, and brain tissue to maintain steady intracranial pressure. Treatment options aim to regulate these different volumes and pressures.
CSFCirculation for MBBS students by PN.pptx
The document summarizes fetal circulation, transitional circulation at birth, and normal pediatric circulation. In the fetus, the placenta serves as the oxygenator and shunts are necessary for survival, directing blood flow away from the lungs. At birth, the lungs begin functioning as the oxygenator, the foramen ovale and ductus arteriosus close, and pulmonary resistance decreases over time. In children, the left ventricle pumps to the higher resistance systemic circulation while the right ventricle pumps to the lower resistance pulmonary circulation.
Cerebrospinal fluid and intracranial pressure
The cerebrospinal fluid is formed in the ventricles and circulates through the brain and spinal cord, acting as a cushion and regulating intracranial pressure. An increase in CSF volume or obstruction of flow can lead to hydrocephalus and increased intracranial pressure. The Monro-Kellie hypothesis states that the skull has a fixed volume, so an increase in one component like CSF must be offset by a decrease in blood or brain volume to avoid a rise in pressure. Symptoms of increased intracranial pressure include headache, nausea, blurred vision, and altered mental status.
CSF.pptx
Cerebrospinal fluid, CSF formation, circulation, absorption, function and clinical related to CSF,
HYDROCEPHALUS:
Communicating/ external,
non communicating/ internal
Hydrocephalus
Congenital hydrocephalus is present at birth and can be caused by events during fetal development or genetic abnormalities. It is characterized by an abnormally large head size. Acquired hydrocephalus develops after birth from injuries or diseases. It is divided into communicating hydrocephalus, caused by blocked CSF absorption, and obstructive hydrocephalus, caused by blocked ventricular flow. Normal pressure hydrocephalus occurs when hydrocephalus reaches an equilibrium state, causing gait, urinary, and cognitive issues without enlarged head size or elevated pressure.
Cerebral blood flow
The cerebral circulation supplies blood to the brain through arteries like the internal carotid and vertebral arteries. Blood flow is regulated by factors like carbon dioxide, oxygen, and chemicals released by astrocytes. Cerebrospinal fluid is produced in the brain ventricles at a rate of 500 mL per day and circulates through the subarachnoid space, cushioning the brain. Abnormal CSF pressure can cause issues like hydrocephalus or papilledema, and may be treated with shunts or lumbar punctures.
Shunt for hydrocephalus
This document discusses shunts for treating hydrocephalus. It begins by defining hydrocephalus and explaining its causes. It then discusses epidemiology, showing hydrocephalus requiring shunts is most common in young pediatric patients. It also reviews the costs associated with hydrocephalus treatment in the US. The document goes on to describe CSF dynamics and circulation in detail. It compares pediatric and adult hydrocephalus, noting causes and treatment outcomes differ between age groups. In closing, it emphasizes the challenge in shunt treatment is to recreate natural CSF physiology.
Hydrocephalus
Hydrocephalus is a condition where excess cerebrospinal fluid accumulates in the brain due to imbalance between CSF production and absorption. It can be congenital or acquired. The excess fluid increases pressure on the brain and causes damage. Treatment involves surgical placement of a shunt to drain fluid from the brain ventricles to the abdomen, heart, or other sites to relieve pressure. Complications can include infection, shunt malfunction, or subdural hematoma from rapid reduction in brain size.
CSF. Anaesthesia
CEREBROSPINAL FLUID (CSF) circulation, causes of increased ICP, Monitoring assesment and management of raised ICP
cerebrospinalfluidcsf-110620155214-phpapp01.pdf
This document summarizes key information about cerebrospinal fluid (CSF):
- CSF is clear fluid that circulates in the brain and spinal cord cavities. It is produced by the choroid plexus and absorbed into veins.
- CSF composition is 99% water with small amounts of proteins, sugars, and electrolytes. It acts as a buffer and regulates cranial pressure.
- CSF flows from the ventricles through the brain and spinal cord, and is ultimately absorbed into veins by the arachnoid villi or spinal veins. Hydrocephalus occurs when CSF circulation is blocked.
Similar to CSF by Dr. Pandian M, Tutor, Dept of Physiology, DYPMCKOP, MH, This PPT for For all Medical Students (20)
physiology of aqueoushumor-140302140543-phpapp01 (1).pptx
physiology of aqueoushumor-140302140543-phpapp01 (1).pptx
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1) The document discusses the structure and function of photoreceptor cells (rods and cones) in the retina and the biochemical process of vision, including the roles of rhodopsin and retinal isomerization.
2) It also explains the visual cycle and how activation of rhodopsin causes hyperpolarization in the rod cell, leading to a receptor potential.
3) Finally, it covers common errors of refraction like myopia, hyperopia, astigmatism, and presbyopia as well as visual field defects that can result from lesions along the visual pathway from the retina to the visual cortex.
Thalamus .ppt
The thalamus is located in the center of the cerebral hemispheres. It receives sensory input from various areas and projects to different cortical regions. The thalamus and cortex work as a single functional unit, with the thalamus integrating inputs and the cortex performing higher-level processing.
Anatomically, the thalamus is divided into anterior, lateral, and medial groups of nuclei. The lateral group contains sensory relay nuclei that project to sensory cortices. Association nuclei in the medial and dorsal groups integrate sensory and limbic inputs and project to association cortices. Nonspecific nuclei in the intralaminar and midline regions are involved in arousal, emotions, and alertness.
Damage to the
Pulmonary Surfactant for MBBS .pptx
Pulmonary surfactant is produced by type II alveolar cells and acts to reduce surface tension in the lungs. It is composed primarily of phospholipids including dipalmitoyl phosphatidylcholine and surfactant proteins. Surfactant functions to prevent alveolar collapse during exhalation by reducing surface tension and to maintain uniform alveolar size. Disruption of surfactant production can lead to respiratory distress syndrome in newborns and adults with lung injury.
What does it mean by Patient.pptx
The document discusses key concepts related to patients and illness. It defines a patient as someone suffering from an illness and receiving medical treatment. It describes acute illnesses as short-term and severe, while chronic illnesses persist for over 6 months and may cause disability. The stages of illness behavior are discussed, from initially experiencing symptoms, to assuming the sick role and seeking medical care, becoming dependent on treatment, and recovering. Emotional responses like fear and anxiety are also reviewed.
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This document discusses white blood cell formation and regulation. It begins by explaining that leukopoiesis (white blood cell formation) is mainly regulated by cytokines like colony stimulating factors, interleukins, and tumor necrosis factors which are produced by tissues like T lymphocytes, monocytes, fibroblasts and organs like the liver and kidneys. It then goes on to describe various conditions that can cause changes in different white blood cell counts, including physiological and pathological causes of neutrophilia, neutropenia, eosinophilia, basophilia, lymphocytosis, lymphocytopenia, monocytosis and monocytopenia. Examples of diseases or situations associated with increases or decreases in specific white blood cell types are provided. The document concludes by listing
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The document provides an overview of the anatomy and physiology of the heart. It describes the four chambers of the heart, including the two atria that receive blood and two thick-walled ventricles that pump blood. The left ventricle must work harder than the right ventricle due to higher systemic resistance. Valves including the tricuspid, mitral, pulmonary and aortic valves are described. Their roles in regulating blood flow and sounds produced from their closure are also summarized. The conducting system including the sinoatrial node, atrioventricular node and Purkinje fibers is briefly outlined. Finally, the document lists references for further reading on cardiac anatomy and physiology.
Properties of CM, Plateau Potential & Pacemaker.pptx
Cardiac muscle has unique properties that allow the heart to function as a syncytium.
1) Cardiac cells are branched and joined by intercalated discs containing desmosomes and gap junctions, allowing action potentials to spread between cells.
2) The heart has specialized pacemaker cells in the sinoatrial node that generate action potentials spontaneously due to unstable membrane potentials and funny channels.
3) Cardiac action potentials have a plateau phase due to calcium influx through L-type calcium channels, allowing the heart to contract forcefully for over 200ms.
Urine formation 2 zydus.pptx
The document discusses renal tubular reabsorption and secretion. It covers:
1. The proximal tubule reabsorbs about 65% of filtered sodium, chloride, bicarbonate, potassium, and essentially all filtered glucose and amino acids. It also secretes organic acids, bases, and hydrogen ions.
2. In the loop of Henle, the descending limb reabsorbs water by passive diffusion. The thick ascending limb actively reabsorbs sodium, chloride, and potassium.
3. The distal tubules and collecting ducts reabsorb approximately 7% of filtered NaCl and 8-17% of water. They secrete potassium and hydrogen ions. The medullary collecting duct is perme
Urine formation -1 zydus.pptx
The document summarizes the three main processes involved in urine formation: glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption, and tubular secretion. It describes glomerular filtration in detail, including the characteristics of the filtration membrane that allow it to be highly selective. The normal glomerular filtration rate is 125 mL/minute, with the kidneys producing a total of about 180 L of filtrate per day. Glomerular filtration rate is regulated by several factors that influence the net filtration pressure across the glomerular membrane.
Bladder, Micturition and Applied 2023.pptx
1. The document discusses the physiology of micturition and bladder dysfunctions.
2. It describes the anatomy and innervation of the urinary bladder, as well as the mechanism of micturition and how micturition is controlled.
3. Various bladder dysfunctions that can occur due to lesions at different levels of the neuraxis are also discussed.
THE COUNTERCURRENT.pptx
The countercurrent mechanism involves the loops of Henle and vasa recta working together to create and maintain an osmotic gradient in the renal medulla. The loops of Henle function as countercurrent multipliers, actively transporting ions from the thick ascending limb to increase the osmolarity of the interstitial fluid. The vasa recta parallel the loops of Henle and function as countercurrent exchangers, rapidly exchanging fluids between ascending and descending limbs to minimize washing out solutes and preserve the osmotic gradient as blood flows through the medulla. This countercurrent system allows urine to be concentrated as water is reabsorbed along the nephron according to the osmotic gradient in the
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Degeneration & regeneration of nerve fiber.ppt by Dr. PANDIAN M.
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composition of blood - BPTH 2022.pptx
COMPOSITION
BLOOD CELLS
PLASMA
SERUM
FUNCTIONS
NUTRITIVE FUNCTION
RESPIRATORY FUNCTION
EXCRETORY FUNCTION
TRANSPORT OF HORMONES AND ENZYMES
REGULATION OF WATER BALANCE
REGULATION OF ACID-BASE BALANCE
REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE
STORAGE FUNCTION
DEFENSIVE FUNCTION
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Gastrointestinal Infections
GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS result from the ingestion of pathogens that cause infections at the level of this tract, generally being transmitted by food, water and hands contaminated by microorganisms such as E. coli, Salmonella, Shigella, Vibrio cholerae, Campylobacter, Staphylococcus, Rotavirus among others that are generally contained in feces, thus configuring a FECAL-ORAL type of transmission.
Among the factors that lead to the occurrence of gastrointestinal infections are the hygienic and sanitary deficiencies that characterize our markets and other places where raw or cooked food is sold, poor environmental sanitation in communities, deficiencies in water treatment (or in the process of its plumbing), risky hygienic-sanitary habits (not washing hands after major and/or minor needs), among others.
These are generally consequences (signs and symptoms) resulting from gastrointestinal infections: diarrhea, vomiting, fever and malaise, among others.
The treatment consists of replacing lost liquids and electrolytes (drinking drinking water and other recommended liquids, including consumption of juicy fruits such as papayas, apples, pears, among others that contain water in their composition).
To prevent this, it is necessary to promote health education, improve the hygienic-sanitary conditions of markets and communities in general as a way of promoting, preserving and prolonging PUBLIC HEALTH.
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Gastric Health is one of the most relevant concerns in human health, with gastrointestinal infections being among the main illnesses that affect humans.
Among gastric problems, we have GASTRITIS AND GASTRIC ULCERS as the main public health problems. Gastritis and gastric ulcers normally result from inflammation and corrosion of the walls of the stomach (gastric mucosa) and are generally associated (caused) by the bacterium Helicobacter pylor, which, according to the literature, this bacterium settles on these walls (of the stomach) and starts to release urease that ends up altering the normal pH of the stomach (acid), which leads to inflammation and corrosion of the mucous membranes and consequent gastritis or ulcers, respectively.
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Diagnosis and Staging
The diagnosis of HR+ breast cancer begins with clinical evaluation, imaging, and biopsy. Imaging modalities such as mammography, ultrasound, and MRI help in assessing the extent of the disease. Histopathological examination and immunohistochemical staining of the biopsy sample confirm the diagnosis and hormone receptor status by identifying the presence of estrogen receptors (ER) and progesterone receptors (PR) on the tumor cells.
Staging involves determining the size of the tumor (T), the involvement of regional lymph nodes (N), and the presence of distant metastasis (M). The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) staging system is commonly used. Accurate staging is critical as it guides treatment decisions.
Treatment Options
Endocrine Therapy
Endocrine therapy is the cornerstone of treatment for HR+ breast cancer in postmenopausal women. The primary goal is to reduce the levels of estrogen or block its effects on cancer cells. Commonly used agents include:
Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators (SERMs): Tamoxifen is a SERM that binds to estrogen receptors, blocking estrogen from stimulating breast cancer cells. It is effective but may have side effects such as increased risk of endometrial cancer and thromboembolic events.
Aromatase Inhibitors (AIs): These drugs, including anastrozole, letrozole, and exemestane, lower estrogen levels by inhibiting the aromatase enzyme, which converts androgens to estrogen in peripheral tissues. AIs are generally preferred in postmenopausal women due to their efficacy and safety profile compared to tamoxifen.
Selective Estrogen Receptor Downregulators (SERDs): Fulvestrant is a SERD that degrades estrogen receptors and is used in cases where resistance to other endocrine therapies develops.
Combination Therapies
Combining endocrine therapy with other treatments enhances efficacy. Examples include:
Endocrine Therapy with CDK4/6 Inhibitors: Palbociclib, ribociclib, and abemaciclib are CDK4/6 inhibitors that, when combined with endocrine therapy, significantly improve progression-free survival in advanced HR+ breast cancer.
Endocrine Therapy with mTOR Inhibitors: Everolimus, an mTOR inhibitor, can be added to endocrine therapy for patients who have developed resistance to aromatase inhibitors.
Chemotherapy
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CSF by Dr. Pandian M, Tutor, Dept of Physiology, DYPMCKOP, MH, This PPT for For all Medical Students
- 1. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID PANDIAN M D.Y. PATIL MEDICAL COLLEGE, KOP
- 2. SLO • INTRODUCTION • The CSF contributes to homeostasis in three main ways • COMPOSITION OF CSF • FORMATION OF CEREBROSPINAL FLUID • CEREBROSPINAL FLUID PRESSURE • CEREBROSPINAL FLUID CIRCULATION • ABSORPTION OF CEREBROSPINAL FLUID • THE FUNCTIONS OF THE CEREBROSPINAL FLUID • CLINICALAPPLICATIONS • REFERENCES
- 3. INTRODUCTION •The CSF is found in the •ventricles, Subarachnoid space & Spinal cord. •It has a volume of about 150 ml. •It is a clear, colorless fluid and possesses, •In solution, inorganic salts similar to those in the blood plasma.
- 4. •The glucose content is about half that of blood, and there is only a trace of protein. •Only a few cells are present, and these are lymphocytes. •The normal lymphocyte count is 0 to 3 cells per cubic millimeter.
- 5. The CSF contributes to homeostasis in three main ways: 1. Mechanical protection. • CSF serves as a shock-absorbing Medium that protects the delicate tissues of the brain and • spinal Cord from jolts that cause them to hit the bony walls of the cranial cavity and vertebral canal. • The fluid also Buoys the brain so that it “floats” in the cranial cavity.
- 6. 2. Chemical protection. •CSF provides an optimal chemical Environment for accurate neuronal signaling. •Even slight Changes in the ionic composition of CSF within the brain can Seriously disrupt production of action potentials and Postsynaptic Potentials.
- 7. 3. Circulation. CSF allows exchange of nutrients and waste Products between the blood and nervous tissue.
- 13. CHOROID PLEXUS IN A LATERAL VENTRICLE.
- 14. FORMATION OF CEREBROSPINAL FLUID SITE OF FORMATION •CSF is formed by choroid plexuses, situated within the ventricles. •Choroid plexuses are tuft of capillary projections present inside the ventricles. •It’s covered by pia mater and ependymal covering. •A large amount of CSF is formed in the lateral ventricles.
- 15. MECHANISM OF FORMATION •CSF is formed by the process of secretion that involves active transport mechanism. •Formation of CSF does not involve ultrafiltration or dialysis.
- 17. CEREBROSPINAL FLUID PRESSURE •The normal pressure in the CSF When one is lying in a horizontal position averages 130 Millimeters of water (10 mm Hg), •although this may be as low as 65 millimeters of water or as high as 195 millimeters of water even in the normal healthy person. •The pressure of the CSF is kept remarkably constant.
- 18. •In the lateral recumbent position, the pressure, as measured by spinal tap, is about 60 to 150 mm of water. •This pressure may be raised by straining, coughing, or compressing the internal jugular veins in the neck
- 22. ABSORPTION OF CEREBROSPINAL FLUID •CSF is mostly absorbed by the arachnoid villi into dural Sinuses and spinal veins. •Small amount is absorbed along the perineural spaces into cervical lymphatics and perivascular spaces. •The mechanism of absorption is by filtration due to Pressure gradient between hydrostatic pressure in the Subarachnoid space fluid
- 23. •The pressure that exists in the dural sinus blood. •Colloidal substances pass slowly and crystalloids are absorbed rapidly. •Normally, about 500 ml of CSF is formed everyday and an equal amount is absorbed.
- 26. THE FUNCTIONS OF THE CEREBROSPINAL FLUID 1. Cushions and protects the central nervous system from trauma 2. Provides mechanical buoyancy and support for the brain 3. Serves as a reservoir and assists in the regulation of the contents of the skull 4. Nourishes the central nervous system 5. Removes metabolites from the central nervous system 6. Serves as a pathway for pineal secretions to reach the pituitary gland
- 27. CLINICAL APPLICATIONS HYDROCEPHALUS •Hydrocephalus refers to an abnormal accumulation of CSF in the cranium. Causes of hydrocephalus include: • Obstruction to CSF circulation, • Excessive production of CSF and • Interference with absorption of CSF.
- 28. TYPES OF HYDROCEPHALUS 1. Internal or non-communicating hydrocephalus occurs when obstruction is within the ventricular system 2. External or communicating hydrocephalus occurs when obstruction is in subarachnoid space or arachnoid villi.
- 29. Lumbar and cisternal puncture •Lumbar puncture refers to the tapping of CSF from the lumbar cistern. •It is performed by inserting a Needle in between the L2 and L3 or L3 and L4 vertebrae into the subarachnoid space within vertebral canal, •as there is No risk of damage to spinal cord as it ends at the level of first Lumbar vertebra.
- 30. Cisternal puncture refers to the tapping of CSF from the Cisterna magna. •To do this, a needle is passed through the Posterior atlanto-occipital membrane forwards and upwards •To a depth of 4.5 cm from the surface.
- 31. USES OF LUMBAR PUNCTURE Lumbar puncture is used for: 1. Collecting CSF for diagnostic purposes 2. Injecting drugs (intrathecal injection) for spinal Anesthesia, analgesia and chemotherapy 3. Measuring the pressure exerted by CSF.
- 32. REFERENCES • TEXT BOOK OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY • GUYTON & HALL • HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY • VANDER • TEXT BOOK OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY • INDUKURANA • PRINCIPLES OF ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY • TOTORA • NET SOURCE
- 33. THANK YOU . . .
Editor's Notes
- Points :- The choroid plexuses actively secrete CSF, and this creates a small pressure gradient. They actively transport nervous system metabolites from the CSF into the blood. Active transport also explains the fact that the concentrations of potassium, calcium, magnesium, bicarbonate, and glucose are lower in the CSF than in the blood plasma.
- the cells large enough to allow relatively free flow of (1) cerebrospinal fluid, (2) dissolved protein molecules, and (3) even particles as large as red and white blood cells into the venous blood.
- It is important to realize that the production of cerebrospinal fluid is not pressure regulated (as in the case of blood pressure), and it continues to be produced even if the reabsorption mechanisms are obstructed.
- IMPORTANT NOTE - Removal of CSF during lumbar puncture sometimes causes severe headache afterwards. This happens due to stimulation of pain fibres due the traction effect.