Controlling cell respiration
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Cellular respiration is regulated through feedback mechanisms that control the activity of enzymes. Phosphofructokinase, a key enzyme in glycolysis, is inhibited by ATP and citrate but stimulated by AMP. This allows the rate of glycolysis and the Krebs cycle to increase when ATP levels drop and more ATP needs to be produced, and decrease when ATP levels are high. Overall, feedback inhibition and control of enzyme activity allows cells to efficiently regulate their metabolism based on energy demands.
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The document summarizes the regulation of glycolysis and the TCA cycle. For glycolysis, three key enzymes (hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase) are regulated by hormones like insulin and glucagon. Their activity is also controlled by allosteric effectors and covalent modification. For the TCA cycle, the ratios of NADH/NAD+ and ATP/ADP provide feedback to regulate the cycle. Specifically, citrate synthase and isocitrate dehydrogenase are inhibited by accumulated products to regulate the entry and second reaction of the cycle.
adenosine monophosphate kinase
AAU students don't present this downloaders, you'ii be fucked-up ---- just kidding we were awesome presenting this
Regulation of fattyacid metabolism
Fatty acid metabolism is regulated through acetyl-CoA carboxylase, which catalyzes the committed step of fatty acid biosynthesis. Acetyl-CoA carboxylase activity is controlled by hormones like insulin, glucagon, and epinephrine in response to energy levels. Insulin stimulates fatty acid synthesis by activating acetyl-CoA carboxylase through dephosphorylation. Glucagon and epinephrine inhibit fatty acid synthesis by phosphorylating and inactivating acetyl-CoA carboxylase. Fatty acid oxidation is regulated by fatty acid levels and is stimulated by hormones like glucagon and epinephrine through lipolysis and phosphorylation of enzymes.
Fate of nitrogen in the body
The document summarizes nitrogen fate in the body. It discusses protein turnover and degradation pathways. Amino acids are removed from proteins and enter metabolic pathways where their nitrogen is eventually converted to urea in the urea cycle in the liver. The urea is transported to the kidneys and excreted in urine. Transamination and glutamine transport ammonia from tissues to the liver for urea synthesis. Genetic defects in the urea cycle can cause hyperammonemia, a potentially fatal condition.
enzyme regulation
This document summarizes different ways that enzyme activity can be regulated in cells, including at the level of production, compartmentation, activation/inhibition, post-translational modification, and localization. It describes constitutive enzymes that are always active and regulated enzymes that are only active under certain conditions. Enzyme activity can be regulated at the level of transcription/translation or after protein synthesis via posttranslational modification. Mechanisms of regulation include feedback inhibition, allosteric regulation of activity based on substrate or product binding, phosphorylation/dephosphorylation, and proteolytic activation.
8.12.10 enzyme regulation
This document summarizes different ways that enzyme activity can be regulated in cells, including at the level of production, compartmentation, activation/inhibition, post-translational modification, and localization. It describes constitutive enzymes that are always active and regulated enzymes that are only active under certain conditions. Enzyme activity can be regulated at the level of transcription/translation or after protein synthesis via posttranslational modification. Mechanisms of regulation include feedback inhibition, allosteric regulation of activity based on substrate or product binding, phosphorylation/dephosphorylation, and proteolytic activation.
Cyclic amp
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) is an important second messenger in intracellular signal transduction. It is derived from ATP and conveys signals from hormones that bind to cell surface receptors. Many hormones such as epinephrine, glucagon, and others activate adenylate cyclase, which produces cAMP from ATP. cAMP then activates protein kinase A and triggers physiological responses in the cell. The effects of cAMP are terminated by phosphodiesterases that break it down or by phosphatases dephosphorylating protein kinase A. Deregulation of cAMP pathways has been implicated in cancer and cognitive disorders.
Protein phosphorylation, kinases and phosphatases
This document summarizes protein phosphorylation and the enzymes involved in this process. It discusses serine/threonine kinases and tyrosine kinases that add phosphate groups to proteins, as well as phosphatases that remove phosphate groups. It provides examples of important kinases like mitogen-activated protein kinases, calcium/calmodulin-dependent protein kinases, protein kinase C, and AMP-activated protein kinase. The document emphasizes that phosphorylation is a key cellular regulatory mechanism controlled by kinases and phosphatases.
Carbohydrate metabolism & Interconnection of Metabolism with Respiratory chain
This document provides an overview of various topics related to metabolism including anabolism, catabolism, the purpose of metabolism, energy metabolism, the paradigm of metabolism, bioenergetics, energy phosphate compounds, ATP-ADP cycle, the role of ATP in bioenergetics, carbohydrate metabolism, intermediary metabolism of glucose, the glucose pool, glucose homeostasis, the glucostatic functions of the liver, the metabolic fates of glucose, types of metabolic reactions, glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, the respiratory chain, gluconeogenesis, the Cory cycle, the glucose-alanine cycle, the hexose monophosphate shunt, and their importance.
Ch5 (74 99)
The document discusses the three biological energy systems - phosphagen, glycolytic, and oxidative - that replenish ATP in human skeletal muscle. The phosphagen system provides ATP for short, high-intensity activities. The glycolytic system breaks down carbohydrates to produce ATP for high-intensity activities of short to medium duration. The oxidative system requires oxygen to provide ATP for low-intensity, long duration activities. The primary energy system used depends on the intensity and duration of exercise.
glycolysis.pdf for bscs for human nutrition and dietetics
1) Glycolysis is the first pathway of glucose metabolism that breaks glucose down into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP.
2) Glycolysis involves several phosphorylation and oxidation-reduction reactions regulated by factors like insulin, ATP levels, and fructose 2,6-bisphosphate.
3) The breakdown of glucose via glycolysis is critical for producing energy in red blood cells and some microbes that lack mitochondria.
Unit-II, Chapter_1.1- ATP.ppt
Energetics
Formation and role of ATP,
BP 201T. HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY-II (Theory)
B. Pharm. Sem.II
AMPK
AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) is an enzyme that acts as a cellular energy sensor. It is activated by increases in the AMP:ATP ratio caused by metabolic stresses that deplete ATP. When activated, AMPK works to switch on catabolic pathways that generate ATP while switching off ATP-consuming processes like biosynthesis. AMPK activation improves blood glucose and lipid levels, making it a promising target for treating diabetes and other metabolic disorders. AMPK regulates glucose and lipid metabolism in the liver, skeletal muscle, pancreas and hypothalamus.
Carbohydrate metabolism final questions (3).pdf
The document discusses key aspects of carbohydrate metabolism, focusing on glycolysis. It describes the 10 steps of glycolysis in detail, including the investment and payoff phases. Regulation of glycolysis is also summarized, highlighting control points such as phosphofructokinase and factors that influence its activity like ATP/AMP ratios. The fate of pyruvate and processes like gluconeogenesis are briefly outlined. Finally, the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex and its role in aerobic metabolism is examined.
Pathways of intracellular signal transduction
This document summarizes various cellular signaling pathways. It discusses how receptors can be linked to enzymatic activities like protein kinases and guanylyl cyclases. It then describes several key intracellular signaling pathways, including the cyclic AMP pathway, cyclic GMP pathway, phospholipid and calcium signaling, PI3 kinase/Akt pathway, and MAP kinase pathway. Each of these pathways transmit signals from cell surface receptors to intracellular targets and regulate processes like gene expression, metabolism, cell growth and differentiation.
Explain how enzymes work, explaining the four major types of metabol.pdf
Explain how enzymes work, explaining the four major types of metabolic reactions enzymes
perform. Include: (Metabolism, catabolism, anabolism, substrate product, active site, induced fit,
competative and non competative inhibitors, allosteric regulation, cofactors and coenzymes,
hydrolysis and dehydration reactions, Redox Reactions, NADH, FADH2, phosphorylation,
exergonic/ endergonic reactions, ATP, isomerization reactions, feedback inhibition)
Solution
Enzymes are biological molecules (typically proteins) that significantly speed up the rate of
virtually all of the chemical reactions that take place within cells.
They are vital for life and serve a wide range of important functions in the body, such as aiding
in digestion and metabolism. Substrate binding[edit]
Enzymes must bind their substrates before they can catalyse any chemical reaction. Enzymes are
usually very specific as to what substrates they bind and then the chemical reaction catalysed.
Specificity is achieved by binding pockets with complementary shape, charge and
hydrophilic/hydrophobic characteristics to the substrates. Enzymes can therefore distinguish
between very similar substrate molecules to be chemoselective, regioselective and stereospecific.
Some of the enzymes showing the highest specificity and accuracy are involved in the copying
and expression of the genome. Some of these enzymes have \"proof-reading\" mechanisms.
Here, an enzyme such as DNA polymerase catalyzes a reaction in a first step and then checks
that the product is correct in a second step. This two-step process results in average error rates of
less than 1 error in 100 million reactions in high-fidelity mammalian polymerases.:5.3.1 Similar
proofreading mechanisms are also found in RNA polymerase, aminoacyl tRNA synthetases and
ribosomes.
Conversely, some enzymes display enzyme promiscuity, having broad specificity and acting on a
range of different physiologically relevant substrates. Many enzymes possess small side
activities which arose fortuitously (i.e. neutrally), which may be the starting point for the
evolutionary selection of a new function.
Enzyme changes shape by induced fit upon substrate binding to form enzyme-substrate complex.
Hexokinase has a large induced fit motion that closes over the substrates adenosine triphosphate
and xylose. Binding sites in blue, substrates in black and Mg2+ cofactor in yellow. (PDB: 2E2N,
2E2Q)
\"Lock and key\" model
To explain the observed specificity of enzymes, in 1894 Emil Fischer proposed that both the
enzyme and the substrate possess specific complementary geometric shapes that fit exactly into
one another.This is often referred to as \"the lock and key\" model:8.3.2 This early model
explains enzyme specificity, but fails to explain the stabilization of the transition state that
enzymes achieve.
Induced fit model
In 1958, Daniel Koshland suggested a modification to the lock and key model: since enzymes are
rather flexible structures, the active site is conti.
Role of ATP in Bioenergetics
After reading this slideshare u will be able to answer questions related to role of ATP in bioenergetics.... so good luck guys...
20200512062350.pdf
The document summarizes the urea cycle, which consists of a series of chemical reactions that occur in the liver to convert ammonia into urea for excretion. There are five enzymes involved in the five-step cycle. First, carbamoyl phosphate synthase converts ammonia and carbon dioxide into carbamoyl phosphate in the mitochondria. Second, ornithine transcarbamoylase produces citrulline from carbamoyl phosphate and ornithine, also in the mitochondria. Third, citrulline and aspartate are condensed by argininosuccinate synthetase to form argininosuccinate. Fourth, argininosuccinate lyase cleaves argininosuccinate into fumarate and arg
Glycolysis
it explains about the various steps of glycolysis and their enzymes, their properties and their inhibition
the significance of glycolysis
Similar to Controlling cell respiration (20)
Carbohydrate metabolism & Interconnection of Metabolism with Respiratory chain
Carbohydrate metabolism & Interconnection of Metabolism with Respiratory chain
glycolysis.pdf for bscs for human nutrition and dietetics
glycolysis.pdf for bscs for human nutrition and dietetics
Explain how enzymes work, explaining the four major types of metabol.pdf
Explain how enzymes work, explaining the four major types of metabol.pdf
Biochemistry Chapter 15 Principle of metabolic regulation.ppt
Biochemistry Chapter 15 Principle of metabolic regulation.ppt
More from MrWestbury
Reprod hormones
Human reproductive processes are regulated by hormone cycles. Eggs mature and are released during the menstrual cycle, which has three phases - flow, follicular, and luteal. Fertilization occurs when a sperm joins an egg to form a zygote. Sperm production in males is also regulated by hormones. Sexually transmitted diseases can impact fertility and overall health if not treated.
Krebs
After glycolysis, pyruvate undergoes anaerobic or aerobic breakdown. Aerobically, pyruvate is oxidized in the mitochondrion to form acetyl-CoA which enters the Krebs cycle. The Krebs cycle is a series of redox reactions that occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and fully breaks down glucose, producing CO2, NADH, FADH2, and GTP which can be converted to ATP. Oxygen is not required for glycolysis or the Krebs cycle reactions themselves but is needed to oxidize the NADH and FADH2 produced to generate the most ATP.
Action Potential
A nerve is composed of a bundle of neurons connected by synapses, with glial cells and blood vessels providing support. Action potentials travel along axons when a stimulus depolarizes the neuron's membrane enough to open voltage-gated sodium channels, flooding the intracellular space with sodium ions and causing a rapid increase in membrane potential. This wave of depolarization then propagates along the axon. Myelin sheaths allow the impulse to "jump" between nodes of Ranvier, increasing conduction velocity.
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
The document discusses factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis in plants, including light intensity, carbon dioxide levels, and temperature. It states that initially increasing levels of these factors increases the photosynthesis rate, but the rate levels off at their maximum. Temperature peaks and then the rate decreases if it is too high. The role of the enzyme rubisco is also discussed, which incorporates carbon dioxide but can also incorporate oxygen if levels are high.
201 reproduction
1) The document discusses the endocrine system and reproduction, including sexual differentiation, gamete formation, and the roles of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland in controlling reproduction.
2) It describes the male and female reproductive systems and their functions, including spermatogenesis and the ovarian cycle.
3) Key parts of the female reproductive cycle are explained, including the follicular phase dominated by estrogen, ovulation triggered by an LH surge, and the luteal phase supported by progesterone from the corpus luteum. Changes in the endometrium driven by estrogen and progesterone in preparation for potential implantation are also summarized.
Thermo adapt
Van't Hoff's Rule states that biochemical reaction rates double for every 10 degree Celsius increase in temperature, up to a point. Animals regulate their body temperature through physiological and behavioral adaptations. Endotherms like birds and mammals generate their own body heat through metabolism, while ectotherms rely on environmental heat sources. Smaller animals have higher mass-specific metabolic rates than larger animals due to greater surface area to volume ratios and heat loss. Increased stamina through endothermy provided evolutionary advantages over ectothermy.
Factors affecting photosynthesis
The rate of photosynthesis is affected by light intensity, temperature, water availability, and carbon dioxide concentration. The rate increases with higher light intensity up to the saturation point, increases with temperature up to the optimal temperature for enzymes, and increases with more carbon dioxide available for the reactions. Lack of sufficient water causes stomata to close, limiting carbon dioxide intake and slowing photosynthesis.
Photosynthesis Pres
The document summarizes the process of photosynthesis. It describes how photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll pigments embedded in the thylakoid membrane. The pigments absorb light energy which is used to transfer electrons along the membrane. This powers the synthesis of ATP and NADPH, providing chemical energy. The light reactions are followed by the dark reactions, where carbon dioxide is fixed and organic molecules like glucose are produced in the Calvin cycle within the chloroplast stroma.
Eye
The eye contains the cornea, lens, retina, rods, and cones. Light enters through the cornea and lens, and the inverted image is projected onto the retina. The retina contains photoreceptors called rods and cones that convert light into electrical signals sent through the optic nerve to the brain. Cones provide color vision and see in bright light, while rods see in low light with less resolution and color. Different wavelengths of light stimulate the pigments in the cones, allowing us to see red, blue, and green colors.
Brain
The document summarizes the main parts and functions of the human brain. It describes the brain stem as the oldest part that controls vital functions like breathing and heart rate. It then discusses the cerebellum which coordinates movement. The two main parts of the forebrain are the diencephalon, which includes the thalamus and hypothalamus, and the cerebrum, which is the largest part and controls higher functions through its four lobes and cortex. Motor and sensory functions are localized in different areas of the cortex.
Action potential
An action potential is a rapid change in the electrical potential of a neuron's membrane. When a stimulus reaches the threshold level, voltage-gated sodium channels open, allowing sodium ions to rush into the neuron. This reversal of the membrane potential propagates along the axon as it triggers adjacent sodium channels. Once the peak is reached, voltage-gated potassium channels open to return the membrane potential to its resting state. The sodium-potassium pump then restores the ion concentrations, and the neuron enters a refractory period where it cannot fire again. Myelin sheaths allow the action potential to propagate rapidly along the axon.
Reproductive Hormones
Human reproductive processes are regulated by hormone cycles. Eggs mature and are released from the ovaries in a cycle controlled by hormones like follicle-stimulating hormone and lutenizing hormone. Sperm production is also regulated by hormones in the testes. Fertilization occurs when a sperm penetrates an egg to form a zygote. Sexually transmitted diseases can impact fertility and overall health by infecting reproductive organs.
Control of Metabolism
The thyroid gland regulates basal metabolic rate, long-term stress, and response to cold through thyroid hormones. The thyroid contains follicles that produce thyroid hormones triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) from iodine and amino acid precursors in the blood. Hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary to release thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), which causes the thyroid to release T3 and T4. Disorders can result from low iodine intake leading to goiter, or lack of thyroid hormones in infancy causing cretinism. Hypothyroidism is characterized by reduced metabolic rate, fatigue, cold sensitivity, while hyperthyroidism increases metabolic rate and
Response to Stress
Stress causes demands on the body and non-specific responses that can cause temporary or permanent physiological changes. The adrenal cortex releases cortisol and aldosterone in response to stress, with cortisol breaking down fats and proteins to raise blood glucose levels while suppressing the immune and inflammatory responses, and aldosterone retaining sodium and water through the kidneys to increase blood volume and pressure. Prolonged high cortisol exposure can lead to Cushing's disease.
Regulation of blood sugar
The pancreas regulates blood sugar levels through the hormones insulin and glucagon. Insulin is released when blood sugar is high and promotes the uptake of glucose into cells. Glucagon is released when blood sugar is low and breaks down glycogen to release glucose. Diabetes occurs when the body does not produce enough insulin or the cells ignore insulin, resulting in high blood sugar levels. There are different types of diabetes diagnosed through blood tests and managed through insulin injections, diet, exercise and monitoring of blood sugar levels. Diabetes is a growing global health problem.
Typesof photosynthesis
There are three main types of photosynthesis: C3, C4, and CAM. C3 photosynthesis is most efficient under normal conditions and is used by most plants. C4 photosynthesis is faster under high heat/light and avoids photorespiration. C4 plants include many grasses and desert plants. CAM photosynthesis stores CO2 at night and is most efficient for water use; it is used by plants like cacti and bromeliads.
Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis occurs in chloroplasts, which contain thylakoid membranes housing the light-dependent reactions. During the light reactions, pigments in the thylakoid membrane absorb light and transfer energy to excite electrons. This builds up proton gradients and reduces NADP+ to NADPH. The dark reactions then use NADPH to fix carbon from CO2 into organic compounds like glucose, in a process called the Calvin cycle. The fixed carbon can then be used to build biomass or be stored as starch.
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みなさんこんにちはこれ何文字まで入るの？40文字以下不可とか本当に意味わからないけどこれ限界文字数書いてないからマジでやばい文字数いけるんじゃないの？えこ...
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みなさんこんにちはこれ何文字まで入るの？40文字以下不可とか本当に意味わからないけどこれ限界文字数書いてないからマジでやばい文字数いけるんじゃないの？えこ...
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