Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH. It is catalyzed by 10 cytosolic enzymes in 10 steps. There is a net gain of 2 ATP per glucose molecule. The NADH must be recycled to NAD+ either through aerobic respiration or by converting pyruvate to lactate anaerobically. Glycolysis is regulated at three irreversible steps catalyzed by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase-1, and pyruvate kinase. Other hexoses can also enter this ubiquitous pathway.
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Complete Set of Metabolism of Carbohydrate in that second chapter, glycolysis.
This presentation covers complete glycolysis pathway with step wise animated reactions and it includes clinical aspects also. This presentation is good for MBBS students.
Carbohydrate metabolism involves the different biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown, and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms.
This file include these contents:
What is Triacylglycerol
Structure of triacylglycerol
Simple triacylglycerol
Mixed triacylglycerol
Biosynthesis of triacylglycerol
Utilization of triacylglycerol
Properties of triacylglycerol
Complete Set of Metabolism of Carbohydrate in that second chapter, glycolysis.
This presentation covers complete glycolysis pathway with step wise animated reactions and it includes clinical aspects also. This presentation is good for MBBS students.
Carbohydrate metabolism involves the different biochemical processes responsible for the formation, breakdown, and interconversion of carbohydrates in living organisms.
This file include these contents:
What is Triacylglycerol
Structure of triacylglycerol
Simple triacylglycerol
Mixed triacylglycerol
Biosynthesis of triacylglycerol
Utilization of triacylglycerol
Properties of triacylglycerol
Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products. Though often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates — one of the basic food groups — are important to a healthy diet.
To understand how the glycolytic pathway is converts glucose to pyruvate.
To understand conservation of chemical potential energy in the form of ATP and NADH.
To learn the intermediates, enzyme, and cofactors of the glycolytic pathway.
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carbohydrate metabolism, Glycolysis, metabolic process of carbohydrates, EMP pathway, Embden- Meyerof-Paranas pathway, cabohydrate metabolic process for study, A presentation on cabohydrate metabolic process i.e. Glycolysis
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The people of Punjab felt alienated from main stream due to denial of their just demands during a long democratic struggle since independence. As it happen all over the word, it led to militant struggle with great loss of lives of military, police and civilian personnel. Killing of Indira Gandhi and massacre of innocent Sikhs in Delhi and other India cities was also associated with this movement.
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An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
For more information, visit-www.vavaclasses.com
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June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
2. OBJECTIVESOBJECTIVES
To understand how the glycolytic pathway is used
to convert glucose to pyruvate (and lactate) with
conservation of chemical potential energy in the
form of ATP and NADH.
To learn the intermediates, enzymes, and cofactors
of the glycolytic pathway.
3. Major pathways of glucose utilization inMajor pathways of glucose utilization in
cells of higher plants and animalscells of higher plants and animals
Although not the only
possible fates for
glucose, these three
pathways are the
most significant in
terms of the amount
of glucose that flows
through them in most
cells.
4. Glucose is the major fuel of most organisms.
It is relatively rich in potential energy- complete
oxidation to CO2 and H2O proceeds with a free-
energy change of -2,840 kJ/mol.
By storing glucose as high molecular weight
polymers (starch/glycogen) a cell can stockpile
large quantities of hexose units.
When energy demands increase, glucose can be
released quickly from storage and used to produce
ATP either aerobically or anaerobically.
5. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol of cells, is common
to most organisms, and in humans occurs in
virtually all tissues.
Most tissues have at least a minimal requirement
for glucose. In the brain, the requirement for
glucose is substantial, in erythrocytes, it is nearly
total.
In glycolysis, a molecule of glucose is degraded in a
series of steps catalyzed by ten cytosolic enzymes,
to yield two molecules of the 3 carbon compound,
pyruvate.
During those sequential reactions, some of the free
energy released is conserved in the form of ATP
and NADH
6. Biomedical ImportanceBiomedical Importance
Of crucial biomedical significance is the ability of glycolysis to
provide ATP in the absence of oxygen.
This allows skeletal muscle to perform at high levels when aerobic
oxidation becomes insufficient, and allows cells to survive anoxic
episodes.
Diseases associated with impaired glycolysis:
♦Hemolytic anemia:
- of the defects in glycolysis that cause hemolytic anemia, pyruvate
kinase deficiency (genetic mutations) is the most common.
- mature erythrocytes contain no mitochondria, totally dependent
upon glycolysis for ATP.
- ATP is required for Na/K-ATPase-ion transport system which
maintain the proper shape of the erythrocyte membrane.
♦Lactic Acidosis:
- can be due to several causes of improper utilization of lactate.
7. Glycolysis is only the first step in theGlycolysis is only the first step in the
degradation of glucosedegradation of glucose
Three possible
catabolic fates of the
pyruvate formed in
glycolysis. Pyruvate
also serves as a
precursor in many
anabolic reactions, not
shown here.
8. Where glycolysis fits inWhere glycolysis fits in
the big picture ofthe big picture of
catabolismcatabolism
12. Energy Transformations during GlycolysisEnergy Transformations during Glycolysis
Glucose + 2 NAD+
+ 2 ADP + 2 Pi → 2 Pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 H+
+ 2 ATP + H2O
(Note: Much, 95%, of the energy remains in pyruvate)
Resolve into two processes:
Glucose + 2 NAD+
→ 2 pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 H+
∆Go´
1 = -146 kJ/mol
2 ADP + 2 Pi → 2 ATP + 2 H2O
∆Go´
= 2(30.5 kJ/mol) = 61 kJ/mol
Overall free energy change = -146 + 61 = -85 kJ/mol
13. Why phosphorylated intermediates?Why phosphorylated intermediates?
Each of the nine glycolytic intermediates between glucose and
pyruvate is phosphorylated
1. Phosphate groups are ionized at pH 7, giving each
glycolytic intermediate a net negative charge. Because the
plasma membrane is impermeable to charged molecules, the
phosphorylated intermediates cannot disperse out of the cell.
2. Energy used in the formation of the phosphate ester is
partially conserved. High energy phosphate compounds
formed in glycolysis (1,3-bisphosphoglycerate and
phosphoenolpyruvate) donate phosphoryl groups to ADP to
form ATP.
3. Binding energy resulting from the binding of phosphate
groups to the active sites of enzymes lowers the activation
energy and increases the specificity of the enzymatic
reactions.
14. Step 1: Phosphorylation of glucoseStep 1: Phosphorylation of glucose
Glucose is activated by phosphorylation at C6
Reaction is catalyzed by hexokinase, present in virtually all
extrahepatic cells. Has high affinity (low Km) for glucose, so
phosphorylates essentially all the glucose that enters cell,
maintaining a large glucose gradient. Will also phosphorylate other
hexose sugars. Under physiological conditions, reaction is
essentially irreversible.
In liver, glucose is phosphorylated by glucokinase. This enzyme has
a low affinity (high Km) for glucose, is specific for glucose, and its
15. Step 2: Conversion of glucose 6-phosphateStep 2: Conversion of glucose 6-phosphate
to fructose 6-phosphateto fructose 6-phosphate
The enzyme phosphohexose isomerase catalyzes
the reversible isomerization of glucose 6-phosphate
(an aldose) to fructose 6-phosphate (a ketose)
As predicted for the relatively small change in
standard free energy, the reaction proceeds readily
in either direction, and requires Mg2+
16. Step 3: Phosphorylation of fructose 6-Step 3: Phosphorylation of fructose 6-
phosphate to fructose 1, 6-bisphosphatephosphate to fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
Phosphofructokinase-1 catalyzes the transfer of a phosphoryl
group from ATP to fructose 6-phosphate to yield fructose 1, 6-
bisphosphate.
This reaction is essentially irreversible under cellular conditions.
Phosphofructokinase-1 is a regulated enzyme at a major point in
the regulation of glycolysis.
PFK-1 activity is increased whenever the cell’s ATP supply is
depleted or when ADP/Pi are in excess.
Activity is inhibited whenever the cell has ample ATP and is well
supplied by other fuels such as fatty acids.
17. Step 4: Cleavage of fructose 1, 6-Step 4: Cleavage of fructose 1, 6-
bisphosphatebisphosphate
The enzyme fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate aldolase,
called just aldolase, catalyzes the cleavage of
fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate into two different triose
phosphate, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate and
dihydroxyacetone phosphate
In cells, this reaction can proceed in either direction,
and proceeds to the right during glycolysis because
products are quickly removed.
18. Step 5: Interconverstion of the trioseStep 5: Interconverstion of the triose
phosphatesphosphates
Dihydroxyacetone phosphate is rapidly and reversibly converted
to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate by triose phosphate isomerase
The C-1, C-2, C-3 of the starting glucose now become chemically
indistinguishable for the C-6, C-5, and C-4, respectively.
This reaction completes the prepatory phase of glycolysis
Other hexoses (fructose, mannose, galactose) can also be
19. The payoff phase of glycolysis producingThe payoff phase of glycolysis producing
ATP + NADHATP + NADH
2 molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate → 2 molecules of pyruvate
Step 6: Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase catalyzes
the oxidation of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate to 1, 3-
bisphosphoglycerate
Note that the aldehyde group is dehydrogenated to an acyl
phosphate, which has a very high standard free energy of
hydrolysis (-49.3 kJ/mol).
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase is inhibited by
iodoacetetate
20. Step 7: Phosphoryl transfer from 1, 3-Step 7: Phosphoryl transfer from 1, 3-
bisphospho-glycerate to ADPbisphospho-glycerate to ADP
The enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase transfers the high-energy
phosphoryl group from the carboxyl group to ADP, forming ATP
and 3-phosphoglycerate.
Steps 6 and 7 represent an energy-coupling process in which 1, 3-
phosphoglycerate is the common intermediate.
Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate + ADP + Pi +NAD+
3-phosphoglycerate + ATP + NADH + H+
∆Go´
1= -12.5 kJ/mol
21. Step 8: Conversion of 3-phosphoglycerateStep 8: Conversion of 3-phosphoglycerate
to 2-phosphoglycerateto 2-phosphoglycerate
The enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase catalyzes a
reversible shift of the phosphoryl group between C-
2 and C-3 of glycerate. Mg2+
is essential
22. Step 9: Dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerateStep 9: Dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerate
to phosphoenolpyruvateto phosphoenolpyruvate
Enolase promotes reversible removal of a molecule of
water from 2-phosphoglycerate to yield
phosphoenolpyruvate
Standard free energy of hydrolysis of the phosphate
groups of the reactant and product are -17.6 kJ/mol and
-61.9 kJ/mol, respectively.
ie. The loss of the water molecule causes a
redistribution of energy within the molecule, generating
a super high-energy phosphate compound.
23. Step 10: Transfer of the phosphoryl groupStep 10: Transfer of the phosphoryl group
from phosphoenolpyruvate to ADPfrom phosphoenolpyruvate to ADP
This last step in glycolysis is catalyzed by pyruvate kinase,
which requires K+
and Mg 2+
or Mn 2+
This step is also an important site of regulation
The product pyruvate undergoes tautomerization from its
enol to keto form which is more stable at pH 7
24. Overall balance sheet - net gain of ATPOverall balance sheet - net gain of ATP
Glucose + 2 ATP+ 2 NAD+
+ 4 ADP + 2 Pi →
2 Pyruvate + 2 ADP + 2 NADH + 2 H+
+ 4 ATP + 2 H2O
or Glucose + 2 NAD+
+ 2 ADP + 2 Pi →
2 Pyruvate + 2 NADH + 2 H+
+ 2 ATP + 2 H2O
Under aerobic conditions, the two molecules of NADH are reoxidized
to NAD+
by transfer of their electrons to the respiratory chain in the
mitochondrion
2 NADH + 2 H+
+ O2 → 2 NAD+
+ 2 H2O
During glycolysis:
*Carbon pathway - Glucose → 2x pyruvate
*Phosphate pathway - 2 ADP + 2 Pi → 2 ATP
*Electron pathway - Four electrons (two hydride ions) are
transferred from 2 molecules of glyceraldehyde
3-phosphate to two of NAD+
25. Conversion of pyruvate to lactateConversion of pyruvate to lactate
Under hypoxic or anaerobic
conditions, NADH
generated by glycolysis
cannot be reoxidized by O2 -
NAD+
is required during
glycolysis as electron
acceptor in step 6.
In these cases, NAD+
is
regenerated from NADH by
the reduction of pyruvate to
lactate, catalyzed by lactate
dehydrogenase. This
allows glycolysis to occur
in the absence of oxygen
Lactate produced in muscle
during a short burst of
physical activity is
converted back to glucose
in the liver.
26. Glycolysis is regulated at 3 steps involvingGlycolysis is regulated at 3 steps involving
non equilibrium reactionsnon equilibrium reactions
Step 1: hexokinase
glucose → glucose 6-phosphate
Step 3: phosphofructokinase
fructose 6-phosphate → fructose 1, 6-bisphosphate
Step 10: pyruvate kinase
phosphoenolpyruvate → pyruvate
These are all exergonic and physiologically irreversible
These enzymes function as “valves”, regulating the flow of carbon through
glycolysis. The rates of these steps are limited not by the substrate but by the
activity of the enzymes.
Enzymes that catalyze these exergonic, rate-limiting steps are commonly the targets
of metabolic regulation.
Examples of regulation:
Phosphofructokinase-1 - inhibited by high levels of ATP. ATP binds to an allosteric
site and lowers affinity for fructose 6-phosphate
Hexokinase - allosterically inhibited by its product.
Pyruvate kinase - inhibited by ATP
27. Regulation occurs at steps that
are enzyme-limited. At each of
these steps (orange arrows),
which are generally exergonic, the
substrate is not in equilibrium
with the product because the
reaction is relatively slow; the
substrate tends to accumulate,
just as river water accumulates
behind a dam. In the substrate-
limited reactions (blue arrows),
the substrate and product are
essentially at their equilibrium
concentrations. In the steady
state, all reactions in the
sequence occur at the same rate,
which is determined by the rate-
limiting step.
Regulation of the flux through a multistepRegulation of the flux through a multistep
pathwaypathway
29. SUMMARYSUMMARY
Glycolysis is a universal metabolic pathway for the
catabolism of glucose to pyruvate accompanied by the
formation of ATP.
The process is catalyzed by 10 cytosolic enzymes and
there is a net gain of two ATPs per molecule of glucose.
The NADH formed must be recycled to regenerate NAD+
.
Under aerobic conditions this occurs during mitochondrial
respiration; under anaerobic conditions, NAD+
is
regenerated by the conversion of pyruvate to lactate.
Other organisms such as yeast regenerate NAD+
by
reducing pyruvate to ethanol + CO2 (fermentation)
A variety of D-hexoses, including fructose, mannose, and
galactose, can be funneled into glycolysis.
Enzyme limited, regulated steps are catalyzed by
hexokinase, phosphofructokinase-1, and pyruvate kinase.