This document provides an overview of various topics related to metabolism including anabolism, catabolism, the purpose of metabolism, energy metabolism, the paradigm of metabolism, bioenergetics, energy phosphate compounds, ATP-ADP cycle, the role of ATP in bioenergetics, carbohydrate metabolism, intermediary metabolism of glucose, the glucose pool, glucose homeostasis, the glucostatic functions of the liver, the metabolic fates of glucose, types of metabolic reactions, glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, the respiratory chain, gluconeogenesis, the Cory cycle, the glucose-alanine cycle, the hexose monophosphate shunt, and their importance.
Complete Set of Metabolism of Carbohydrate in that second chapter, glycolysis.
This presentation covers complete glycolysis pathway with step wise animated reactions and it includes clinical aspects also. This presentation is good for MBBS students.
Complete Set of Metabolism of Carbohydrate in that second chapter, glycolysis.
This presentation covers complete glycolysis pathway with step wise animated reactions and it includes clinical aspects also. This presentation is good for MBBS students.
synthesis and lipolysis is explained in detail. enzymes involved and their differences are tabulated. adipose tissue metabolism is also included. Fatty liver causes are explained in detail. obesity is briefly described.
Gluconeogenesis- Steps, Regulation and clinical significanceNamrata Chhabra
Gluconeogenesis- Thermodynamic barriers, substrates of gluconeogenesis, reciprocal regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, biological and clinical significance
This file include these contents:
What is Triacylglycerol
Structure of triacylglycerol
Simple triacylglycerol
Mixed triacylglycerol
Biosynthesis of triacylglycerol
Utilization of triacylglycerol
Properties of triacylglycerol
synthesis and lipolysis is explained in detail. enzymes involved and their differences are tabulated. adipose tissue metabolism is also included. Fatty liver causes are explained in detail. obesity is briefly described.
Gluconeogenesis- Steps, Regulation and clinical significanceNamrata Chhabra
Gluconeogenesis- Thermodynamic barriers, substrates of gluconeogenesis, reciprocal regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis, biological and clinical significance
This file include these contents:
What is Triacylglycerol
Structure of triacylglycerol
Simple triacylglycerol
Mixed triacylglycerol
Biosynthesis of triacylglycerol
Utilization of triacylglycerol
Properties of triacylglycerol
Cellular Energy Transfer (Glycolysis and Krebs Cycle) and ATPmuhammad aleem ijaz
This presentation is all about Cellular Energy Transfer with reference to Glycolysis and Kreb Cycle with all their stages involved.
It also includes ATP production in the body, its importance, structure.
Also contains a comparison of energy production in Krebs and Glycolysis cycle.
Cholesterol Biosynthesis and catabolism for MBBS, Lab. MEd. BDS.pptxRajendra Dev Bhatt
Cholesterol is found exclusively in animals, hence it is often called as animal sterol.
The total body content of cholesterol in an
adult man weighing 70 kg is about 140 g i.e., around 2 g/kg body weight.
The level of cholesterol in blood is related to the development of atherosclerosis & MI.
Different types of solution, Properties of colloid particles, Brownian movement, Tyndall phenomenon, Solvent, Homogenous mixture, Heterogenous mixture, Normal saline, Dialysis, Mechanism of dialyzer, Gibbs-Donnan Equilibrium, Salient features of Donnan membrane equilibrium, Law of mass action, Adsorption,Adsorbents
Liver, Functions of liver, Liver damage, Enzymes of liver damage, Uses of liver function tests, What is bilirubin, Direct bilirubin, Indirect bilirubin, Bilirubin metabolism, Jaundice, Types of jaundice, Van den Bergh reaction, Conjugated bilirubin, Unconjugated bilirubin, Hemolytic jaundice, Obstructive jaundice, Hepatocellular jaundice, Difference between jaundice, Latent jaundice, Bilirubin level, Kernicterus, Congenital non-hemolytic hyperbilirubinemia, Congenital jaundice,
What is diabetes mellitus, Epidemiology of diabetes, Diabetes diagnosis, Features of diabetes, WHO classification of Diabetes Mellitus, Complications of diabetes, Metabolic alterations of diabetes, Oral glucose tolerance test, WHO criteria of OGTT interpretation, Classification of diabetes mellitus, Gestational diabetes, Pre-diabetes, Insulin, Biosynthesis of insulin, Insulin actions, Hypoglycemia, Impaired fasting glucose, Insulin structure
Food, Nutrition, Nutrients, Diet, Energy consumption & BMIDr.Subir Kumar
Chemistry of nutrition, Dietary principles of food, Basic energy consumption, Total calorie requirements, Energy providing foods, Nutrition balance, Body mass index
New Drug Discovery and Development .....NEHA GUPTA
The "New Drug Discovery and Development" process involves the identification, design, testing, and manufacturing of novel pharmaceutical compounds with the aim of introducing new and improved treatments for various medical conditions. This comprehensive endeavor encompasses various stages, including target identification, preclinical studies, clinical trials, regulatory approval, and post-market surveillance. It involves multidisciplinary collaboration among scientists, researchers, clinicians, regulatory experts, and pharmaceutical companies to bring innovative therapies to market and address unmet medical needs.
Knee anatomy and clinical tests 2024.pdfvimalpl1234
This includes all relevant anatomy and clinical tests compiled from standard textbooks, Campbell,netter etc..It is comprehensive and best suited for orthopaedicians and orthopaedic residents.
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
New Directions in Targeted Therapeutic Approaches for Older Adults With Mantl...i3 Health
i3 Health is pleased to make the speaker slides from this activity available for use as a non-accredited self-study or teaching resource.
This slide deck presented by Dr. Kami Maddocks, Professor-Clinical in the Division of Hematology and
Associate Division Director for Ambulatory Operations
The Ohio State University Comprehensive Cancer Center, will provide insight into new directions in targeted therapeutic approaches for older adults with mantle cell lymphoma.
STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
Target Audience
Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
Learning Objectives
1.) Identify clinical and biological prognostic factors that can guide treatment decision making for older adults with MCL
2.) Evaluate emerging data on targeted therapeutic approaches for treatment-naive and relapsed/refractory MCL and their applicability to older adults
3.) Assess mechanisms of resistance to targeted therapies for MCL and their implications for treatment selection
NVBDCP.pptx Nation vector borne disease control programSapna Thakur
NVBDCP was launched in 2003-2004 . Vector-Borne Disease: Disease that results from an infection transmitted to humans and other animals by blood-feeding arthropods, such as mosquitoes, ticks, and fleas. Examples of vector-borne diseases include Dengue fever, West Nile Virus, Lyme disease, and malaria.
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Ve...kevinkariuki227
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Flu Vaccine Alert in Bangalore Karnatakaaddon Scans
As flu season approaches, health officials in Bangalore, Karnataka, are urging residents to get their flu vaccinations. The seasonal flu, while common, can lead to severe health complications, particularly for vulnerable populations such as young children, the elderly, and those with underlying health conditions.
Dr. Vidisha Kumari, a leading epidemiologist in Bangalore, emphasizes the importance of getting vaccinated. "The flu vaccine is our best defense against the influenza virus. It not only protects individuals but also helps prevent the spread of the virus in our communities," he says.
This year, the flu season is expected to coincide with a potential increase in other respiratory illnesses. The Karnataka Health Department has launched an awareness campaign highlighting the significance of flu vaccinations. They have set up multiple vaccination centers across Bangalore, making it convenient for residents to receive their shots.
To encourage widespread vaccination, the government is also collaborating with local schools, workplaces, and community centers to facilitate vaccination drives. Special attention is being given to ensuring that the vaccine is accessible to all, including marginalized communities who may have limited access to healthcare.
Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
Stay informed, stay safe, and get your flu shot today!
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Acute scrotum is a general term referring to an emergency condition affecting the contents or the wall of the scrotum.
There are a number of conditions that present acutely, predominantly with pain and/or swelling
A careful and detailed history and examination, and in some cases, investigations allow differentiation between these diagnoses. A prompt diagnosis is essential as the patient may require urgent surgical intervention
Testicular torsion refers to twisting of the spermatic cord, causing ischaemia of the testicle.
Testicular torsion results from inadequate fixation of the testis to the tunica vaginalis producing ischemia from reduced arterial inflow and venous outflow obstruction.
The prevalence of testicular torsion in adult patients hospitalized with acute scrotal pain is approximately 25 to 50 percent
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
2. Overview of Metabolism
Metabolism: The entire spectrum of chemical
reactions, occurring in living system are collectively
referred to as metabolism.
Anabolism: It’s the synthetic process concerned with
synthesis of large, complex substances from small,
simple molecules with utilization of energy.
Catabolism: It’s the breakdown process concerned
with break down of large complex substances into
smaller & simpler forms with or without the release
of energy e.g. Oxidation of glucose/fatty acid (here
energy is released), Glycogenolysis to glucose (here
no energy is released).
3. Overview of Metabolism
Purpose of metabolism:
Release of energy from ingested food for cellular
work & maintenance of body temperature.
Transformation of small organic compounds into
macromolecules.
Energy Metabolism
It deals with metabolic pathways concerned with
liberation and storage of energy.
4. Paradigm of Metabolism
o Primary metabolism: This includes the digestion of
food materials into their absorbable units in
intestine & the equivalent processes within the cell
(e.g. lipolysis in adipose tissue, lysosomal
degradation of cellular contents etc.).
o Secondary metabolism: Here the end products of
primary metabolism undergo varieties of catabolic
& anabolic activities within the cell to synthesize
different biomolecules and to generate ATP &
reduced coenzymes through oxidative processes.
o Tertiary metabolism: Here the reduced coenzymes
are oxidized through respiratory chain with
production of ATP and water.
5. Bioenergetics
It is the study of energy changes associated with
biochemical reactions. The reactions are broadly
classified as exergonic (energy releasing) and
endergonic (energy consuming).
It describes the transfer & utilization of energy in
biological system.
Free energy: It is the energy available to do work.
In exergonic reaction △G is negative and in
endergonic reaction △G becomes positive. Free
energy change (△G) becomes zero when a reaction
is at equilibrium. It is the amount of useful energy
obtained from a biochemical system & used to
perform work.
6. Energy Phosphate Compounds
o High energy compounds or energy rich compounds
are substances which possess sufficient free energy
to liberate at least 7 Cal/mol at pH 7.0
Examples: Phosphoenol pyruvate, Carbamoyl
phosphate, C-AMP, 1,3-Bisphosphoglycerate,
Phosphocreatine, Acetyl phosphate, Pyrophosphate,
Acetyl CoA, ATP etc.
o Low energy compounds which liberate energy less
than 7.0 Cal/mol at pH 7.0
Examples: ADP, Glucose 1-phosphate, Glucose 6-pho
sphate, Fructose 6-phosphate, Glycerol 3-phosphate.
7. Energy Phosphate Compounds
o High energy compounds possess high energy bonds
(acid anhydride bonds/phosphoanhydride bonds) in
their structures. Acid anhydride bonds are formed
by the condensation of two acidic groups or related
compounds.
o Free energy is liberated when these bonds are
hydrolyzed. The symbol ∼ is used to represent high
energy bonds i.e. ATP is written as AMP∼P∼P .
9. Role of ATP in Bioenergetics
o ATP acts as an energy carrier in biological system &
serves as the mediator of biological energy transfer.
o It links the energy yielding (exergonic) & energy
requiring (endergonic) processes. ATP carries
energy from exergonic processes and then delivers
that energy to endergonic processes. So, ATP is
regarded as the energy currency of cell.
11. Intermediary Metabolism of Glucose
Anabolic:
Glycogenesis
Gluconeogenesis
Catabolic:
Glycolysis (Embden-Meyerhof pathway)
Glycogenolysis
Hexose Monophosphate shunt (HMP shunt)
Oxidation of Pyruvate to acetyl-CoA
Tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA cycle/Krebs cycle/Citric
acid cycle)
Liver, muscle, adipose tissue & brain are main sites of gl
ucose metabolism.
12. Glucose Pool
o It is the total amount of glucose present in ECF.
o Blood glucose concentration is 4.5-5.5 mmol/L in
normal glucose pool.
o Glucose comes to glucose pool from dietary
carbohydrate, glycogenolysis & gluconeogenesis.
o Glucose is removed from glucose pool for
glycogenesis, amino acid synthesis, fat synthesis,
structural material synthesis, HMP shunt &
oxidation.
o About 10-20% glucose is oxidized from glucose
pool in HMP shunt and another 20% is used for
synthesis of structural materials like glycoprotein,
glycolipid, MPS etc.
14. Glucose Homeostasis
It is the maintenance of normal glucose pool or
normal blood glucose concentration within the
narrow limit of 80-100 mg% in spite of its tendency
to become abnormal following meal and during
fasting/starvation.
Normally the rate of glucose entry into the glucose
pool is equal to that of glucose removal from the
pool to maintain the normal blood glucose
concentration.
Following meal blood glucose concentration tends
to increase & generally reach to the peak by 1h
which is called Postprandial hyperglycemia. Then
blood glucose level gradually comes down to
normal by about 2hrs after meal.
16. Glucostatic Functions of Liver
It is the intrinsic capacity of liver to maintain
normal blood glucose concentration & glucose pool
in spite of hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia
tendency following meal & fasting or starvation
respectively.
The importance of the glucostatic functions of liver
is to maintain normal blood glucose concentration
through glucose homeostasis.
Mechanism of glucostatic functions of liver:
In hyperglycemia, liver reduces blood glucose
concentration to normal by using glucose for
glycogenesis and lipogenesis.
In hypoglycemia, liver raised blood glucose
concentration to normal by producing glucose
through glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis.
17. Metabolic fates of glucose
Oxidation through glycolysis & HMP shunt pathway
Storage of glycogen in liver & skeletal muscle
Conversion to fat & storage in adipose tissue
Conversion to amino acids
Synthesis of structural materials e.g. glycoprotein,
glycolipid, MPS etc.
18. Types of metabolic reactions
The biochemical reactions are mainly of four types:
₪ Oxidation-reduction reaction.
₪ Group transfer.
₪ Rearrangement and isomerization.
₪ Make and break of carbon-carbon bonds.
19. Glycolysis
Definition: Glycolysis is defined as the sequence of
reactions converting glucose or glycogen to
pyruvate /lactate with the production of ATP.
Salient features:
Substrate : Glucose
Product : Pyruvate (in aerobic condition)
Lactate (in anaerobic condition)
Site : All cells and tissues
Compartment : Cytoplasm
Nature : Catabolic
Specialty : Can occur in both aerobic and in
anaerobic condition.
20.
21.
22. ATP production in glycolysis
(in aerobic condition)
Generation at substrate level : 4 ATP
Generation at respiratory chain : 6 ATP
Utilization : 2 ATP
Net ATP Production : 8 ATP
23. ATP production in glycolysis
(in anaerobic condition)
Generation at substrate level : 4 ATP
Utilization : 2 ATP
Net ATP Production : 2 ATP
24. Inhibitors of Glycolysis
In vitro: By Fluoride. It inhibits the enzyme Enolase
of glycolysis. During blood glucose estimation,
commonly fluoride is used in test tube to prevent
glycolysis in blood sample
In vivo: By Iodoacetate. It increases ATP & citrate
concentration.
26. Salient features of oxidation of pyruvate to ac
etyl-CoA
Substrate : Pyruvate
Product : Acetyl CoA
Site : All cells and tissues
Compartment : Mitochondria
Nature : Catabolic
ATP production : 06 ATP from 2 pyruvate
Significance : Linker of glycolysis with TCA cycle
27. Citric acid cycle
Definition: TCA Cycle is the cyclical sequence of
reactions in mitochondria that oxidizes acetyl CoA
with production of reduced coenzymes & CO2.
Salient features of TCA Cycle:
Substrate : Acetyl CoA
Product : Reduced Coenzymes, CO2 & GTP/ATP
Site : All cells and tissues
Compartment : Mitochondria
Nature : Amphibolic
Coenzyme needed : TPP, NAD, FAD, CoA, Lipoic acid
ATP Production : 10/12 (for 1 molecule of Acetyl CoA)
Specialty : Common metabolic pathway
28.
29.
30.
31. TCA cycle & Respiratory Chain
Citric acid cycle is an integral part of the process by
which much of the free energy liberated during the
oxidation of fuels is made available.
During the oxidation of acetyl-CoA, coenzymes are
reduced and subsequently reoxidized in the
respiratory chain, linked to the formation of ATP
(oxidative phosphorylation).
38. ATP production in TCA cycle
Generation at respiratory chain through
3 NAD2H : 9/7.5 ATP
Generation at respiratory chain through
1 FAD2H : 2/1.5 ATP
Generation at substrate level : 1 ATP
Total: 12/10 ATP per acetyl-CoA
NAD2H=2.5 ATP, FAD2H=1.5 ATP 10 ATP
NAD2H=3 ATP, FAD2H=2 ATP 12 ATP
39. Total ATP production from complete
oxidation of 1 mol glucose
In aerobic condition
• From glycolysis : 08/07
• From conversion of Pyruvate to acetyl CoA : 06/05
• From 2 turn of TCA cycle :24/20
Total ATP Production : 38/32
In anaerobic condition glucose is incompletely oxidized to
lactate with net 2ATP productions because in absence of
oxygen TCA cycle & respiratory chain can’t work. So in
anaerobic condition only 2 ATP will be produced from eac
h mol of glucose.
40.
41. Important Criteria of TCA Cycle
o OAA is the catalyst of TCA cycle
o TCA cycle is a common metabolic pathway
o TCA cycle is an amphibolic pathway
42. Sources & Fates of Pyruvate
Sources:
Glucose oxidation via glycolysis
Lactic acid oxidation
Catabolism of glucogenic amino acid
Metabolic fates:
Conversion to lactate
Synthesis of alanine
Synthesis of glucose
Conversion to OAA
Conversion to acetyl-CoA
43. Gluconeogenesis
Definition: Gluconeogenesis is the process of
synthesis of glucose or glycogen from
noncarbohydrate precursors e.g. glucogenic amino a
cid, pyruvate, lactate, glycerol, intermediates of
TCA cycle, propionate.
Salient features:
Substrate: GAA, Glycerol, Pyruvate, Lactate
Product: Glucose
Site: Liver & Kidney
Compartment: Mainly cytoplasm then mitochondria
Nature: Anabolic
ATP requirement: 6 ATP is needed
Source of ATP: β- oxidation of fatty acid
51. Gluconeogenesis from Glucogenic Ami
no acids.
I. Amino acids entering gluconeogenic pathway
through pyruvate are : Alanine, Cysteine, Glycine,
Serine, Threonine & Tryptophan.
ii. Amino acids entering gluconeogenic pathway
through α-ketoglutarate are : Glutamate,
Glutamine, Histidine, Proline & Arginine.
iii. Amino acids entering gluconeogenic pathway
through Succinyl CoA are : Methionine, Valine,
Isoleucine.
iv. Amino acids entering gluconeogenic pathway
through Fumerate are : Phenylalanine, Tyrosine.
v. Amino acids entering gluconeogenic pathway
through Oxaloacetate are : Aspartate, Asparagine.
52. Gluconeogenesis from fat
▣Fatty acids on oxidation produce acetyl-CoA which
can’t be converted to pyruvate due to irreversibility
of this reaction. However, the glycerol released from
lipolysis and the propionate obtained from the
oxidation of odd chain fatty acids are good
substrates for gluconeogenesis.
55. Importance of Cory Cycle
Prevents lactic acid accumulation & lactic acidosis.
Lactic acid is disposed in liver through
gluconeogenic pathway. So congenital deficiency of
gluconeogenic enzymes leads to lactic acidosis.
57. Importance of Glucose-Alanine Cycle
Allows muscle glycogen to contribute glucose
supply to blood during starvation.
Allows transfer of NH2 from muscle to liver to
convert it into urea.
59. Hexose Monophosphate Shunt
Definition: HMP shunt is an alternative pathway to
glycolysis and TCA cycle for the oxidation of
glucose. However, HMP shunt is concerned with the
biosynthesis of NADPH and pentoses.
Salient features:
Substrate: Glucose 6-P
Product: Ribose sugar, NADP2H
Site: Liver, adipose tissue, RBC, gonads, adrenal
cortex, macrophage, lactating breast.
Compartment: Cytoplasm
Nature: Catabolic
ATP involvement: No ATP is directly consumed or
produced.
60.
61.
62. Criteria of HMP Shunt
It is called pentose phosphate pathway because it
synthesizes pentose phosphate.
It is called alternative pathway of glucose oxidation.
It is called HMP shunt because it branches from
glycolytic pathway at the level of glucose 6-P.
It is called shunt because pentose formed from
glucose 6-P are recycled back to the mainstream of
glycolysis by conversion into glycolytic intermediates
(fructose 6-P & glyceraldehyde 3-P)
63. Importance of HMP Shunt
Provides ribose sugar for synthesis of nucleotide
and nucleic acid.
Provides NADP2H to-
Help in reductive synthesis of fatty acid, steroid,
cholesterol etc.
Support detoxifying functions of liver by
hydroxylation of toxic water insoluble aromatic/
aliphatic substance (e.g. drugs) into water soluble,
less toxic or nontoxic forms.
Prevent hemolysis by facilitating anti oxidant
activity (neutralization of superoxides and free
radicals) in RBC.
Help in synthesis of nitric oxide (NO) or endothelial
derived relaxing factor (EDRF).
64. Importance of HMP Shunt
Facilitate superoxide and free radical production in
phagocytes through oxygen dependant
myeloperoxidase system to kill bacteria and other
pathogens.
Help in reduction of H2O2.
65. Role HMP shunt in RBC
Under the influence of different oxidants,
hemoglobin in RBC may turn into methemoglobin,
where ferrous iron of normal hemoglobin is
converted to ferric form by losing one electron
which is accepted by molecular oxygen to form
superoxide, causes lysis of RBC membrane and the
methemoglobin that is produced loses oxygen
carrying capacity. Therefore to save RBC, superoxide
must be metabolized to H2O and to maintain
normal hemoglobin function, methemoglobin
must be converted back to normal hemoglobin. For
these activities NADP2H Provided by HMP shunt is
needed. NADP2H maintains the concentration of
reduced glutathione that reduces H2O2
concentration in cell.
66. Clinical consequences of HMP Shunt pa
thway defects
Hemolytic anemia due to G6PD deficiency.
Chronic granulomatosis due to G6PD deficiency.
G6PD deficiency and resistance to malaria.
Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome.
67. Glycogenesis
Definition: Synthesis of glycogen from glucose.
Salient features:
Substrate : Glucose
Product : Glycogen
Site : 1. Liver 2. Skeletal Muscle
Compartment : Cytoplasm
Nature : Anabolic
Branching enzyme: Glucosyl α-4-6 transferase
ATP requirement : 3 ATP for each glucose added to
the growing chain of glycogen
molecule.
68.
69. Advantage of storing glucose as gly
cogen
Glycogen exerts less osmotic pressure and prevents
osmotic lysis of cell. Glucose at 400mmol/L
concentration exerts high osmotic pressure, but if
the same amount of glucose is stored as glycogen;
the glycogen concentration appears to be 0.01µmol
/L only, which have no osmotic effect at all.
So in the form of glycogen large amount of glucose
can be stored within the cell without disturbing the
osmotic equilibrium of cell and ICF volume.
Glycogen possesses high energy value than glucose.
Glycogen does not diffuse out from its storage site
since it is colloid in nature.
70. Glycogenolysis
Definition: Break down of glycogen to glucose is called
glycogenolysis.
Salient features :
Substrate : Glycogen
Product : Glucose (in liver)
Glucose 1-P (in muscle)
Site : Liver & Skeletal muscle
Compartment : Cytoplasm
Nature : Catabolic
Debranching enzyme: Glycosyl 4:4 transferase (α-1,4 bond)
Amylo α-1,6 glucosidase (α-1,6 bond)
ATP involvement : No ATP is used or produced
72. Role of liver glycogen
Maintenance of blood glucose concentration.
In hyperglycemia following meal, glycogenesis
occurs to reduce blood glucose concentration back
to normal. In hypoglycemia following fasting,
glycogenolysis occurs to raise blood glucose
concentration back to normal. After 12-24 hrs fast liver
glycogen is almost totally depleted.
Decreases catabolism of amino acid and increases
protein synthesis.
Provides protection to hepatocytes against various
toxic insults.
Increases the hepatic capacity for detoxification of
drugs, toxins etc.
73. Role of muscle glycogen
1. Provides energy to muscle
For this, glycogen produces glucose 1-P which is
converted to glucose 6-P to get entry into
glycolytic pathway for oxidation.
2. Effect on blood glucose
In hyperglycemia muscle glycogenesis tends to
reduce blood glucose concentration back to normal.
In hypoglycemia role of muscle glycogen is
negligible, but it can provide small amount glucose
to blood via glucose - alanine cycle.
74. Glycogen Storage Disease
Definition: A group of genetic disorders produced
due to the deficiency of enzymes concerned with
glycogen metabolism leading to failure of glycogen
mobilization or excess accumulation of normal or
abnormal type of glycogen in one or more tissues.
75.
76.
77. Metabolic fates of Glucose 6-P
Oxidation via glycolysis and TCA cycle
Glycogen synthesis
Conversion to glucose
Oxidation through HMP shunt
Synthesis of glucuronic acid through uronic acid
pathway.
78. Sources and Metabolic fates of Acetyl CoA
Sources :
1. Oxidation of glucose by glycolysis
2. Oxidation of fatty acid by β-oxidation
3. Oxidation of amino acid.
Metabolic fates :
1. Oxidation in TCA cycle
2. Synthesis of fatty acid
3. Synthesis of cholesterol
4. Synthesis of ketone bodies
5. Donation of acetyl group in different biosynthetic
process.
79. Uronic Acid Pathway
This is an alternative oxidative pathway for glucose
and is also known as glucuronic acid pathway.
It is concerned with the synthesis of glucuronic acid,
pentoses and ascorbic acid (except in primates and
guinea pigs).
Dietary xylulose enters uronic acid pathway through
which it can participate in other metabolisms.