Krebs
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After glycolysis, pyruvate undergoes anaerobic or aerobic breakdown. Aerobically, pyruvate is oxidized in the mitochondrion to form acetyl-CoA which enters the Krebs cycle. The Krebs cycle is a series of redox reactions that occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and fully breaks down glucose, producing CO2, NADH, FADH2, and GTP which can be converted to ATP. Oxygen is not required for glycolysis or the Krebs cycle reactions themselves but is needed to oxidize the NADH and FADH2 produced to generate the most ATP.
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7.4
The document summarizes the second stage of aerobic respiration. The second stage occurs inside mitochondria and includes two pathways: acetyl-CoA formation and the Krebs cycle. These pathways break down the two pyruvate molecules produced during glycolysis into six carbon dioxide molecules, yielding two ATP and reducing ten coenzymes to provide electrons for the third stage of aerobic respiration.
Kreb's cycle (Citric acid cycle, TCA cycle)
The citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle or TCA cycle) is an important metabolic pathway that generates energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. It occurs in the matrix of mitochondria and involves 8 steps where acetyl-CoA derived from pyruvate combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate. As the citrate undergoes oxidation, NADH, FADH2, and GTP are produced, leading to the generation of 12 ATP per acetyl-CoA molecule. The cycle regenerates oxaloacetate and continues.
Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells break down glucose to generate energy in the form of ATP. It involves multiple steps:
1. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into two pyruvate molecules, producing a net of 2 ATP per glucose molecule.
2. The pyruvate molecules then enter the mitochondria where they are further oxidized, producing acetyl CoA and carbon dioxide and generating 2 more NADH per pyruvate.
3. The citric acid (Krebs) cycle uses the acetyl CoA to generate carbon dioxide and produces 6 more NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP.
This overall process breaks down the glucose molecule, producing
2. glycolysis
Respiration requires organic molecules like glucose as fuel. Glucose is broken down through a series of steps to release chemical energy. In glycolysis, glucose is split into two pyruvate molecules in the cytoplasm. This produces two ATP molecules and reduces two NAD molecules. If oxygen is present, pyruvate enters the mitochondrion where it is converted to acetyl CoA and enters the Krebs cycle to further oxidize molecules, reducing NAD and FAD. These reduced carriers transfer hydrogen to the electron transport chain, generating ATP. Oxygen is the final hydrogen acceptor.
glycolisis: fate of pyruvate
Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA and enters the citric acid cycle. This is a three step process where pyruvate loses a carbon dioxide and forms a hydroxyethyl group, which is then oxidized to an acetyl group and transferred to CoA to form acetyl-CoA. Under anaerobic conditions, there are two types of fermentation where pyruvate is converted to either lactic acid via lactate fermentation or ethanol via alcohol fermentation to regenerate NAD+ and allow glycolysis to continue.
Presentation bio
The Krebs cycle begins with acetyl-CoA adding to oxaloacetate to form citrate. Citrate then rearranges to form isocitrate, and oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate forms α-ketoglutarate. α-Ketoglutarate then undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form succinyl-CoA. Succinyl-CoA is converted to succinate, which is then oxidized to fumarate and converted to malate and finally back to oxaloacetate to complete the cycle. The cycle produces NADH, FADH2, ATP, and CO2 as byproducts and turns twice for every glucose molecule
Kr ebs cycle and anaerobic respiration
1) The Krebs cycle converts pyruvate from glycolysis into carbon dioxide to generate electron carriers and ATP.
2) One turn of the Krebs cycle produces 3 CO2, 1 ATP, 1 NADH from before Krebs, 3 NADH from Krebs, and 1 FADH2.
3) For one glucose molecule, there are two turns of the Krebs cycle, resulting in 6 CO2s, 2 ATPs, 8 NADHs, and 2 FADH2.
Glycosis
Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate and produces ATP. It occurs in two phases:
1) The energy investment phase uses 2 ATP to break down glucose into two 3-carbon molecules.
2) The energy generation phase produces 4 ATP and 2 NADH from the breakdown products.
Overall, glycolysis yields a net gain of 2 ATP per glucose molecule. The NADH produced must be used in the mitochondria to generate more ATP. Pyruvate has several possible fates depending on the organism and conditions, including entering the citric acid cycle or being converted to lactate or ethanol.
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7.4
The document summarizes the second stage of aerobic respiration. The second stage occurs inside mitochondria and includes two pathways: acetyl-CoA formation and the Krebs cycle. These pathways break down the two pyruvate molecules produced during glycolysis into six carbon dioxide molecules, yielding two ATP and reducing ten coenzymes to provide electrons for the third stage of aerobic respiration.
Kreb's cycle (Citric acid cycle, TCA cycle)
The citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle or TCA cycle) is an important metabolic pathway that generates energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. It occurs in the matrix of mitochondria and involves 8 steps where acetyl-CoA derived from pyruvate combines with oxaloacetate to form citrate. As the citrate undergoes oxidation, NADH, FADH2, and GTP are produced, leading to the generation of 12 ATP per acetyl-CoA molecule. The cycle regenerates oxaloacetate and continues.
Cellular respiration
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells break down glucose to generate energy in the form of ATP. It involves multiple steps:
1. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into two pyruvate molecules, producing a net of 2 ATP per glucose molecule.
2. The pyruvate molecules then enter the mitochondria where they are further oxidized, producing acetyl CoA and carbon dioxide and generating 2 more NADH per pyruvate.
3. The citric acid (Krebs) cycle uses the acetyl CoA to generate carbon dioxide and produces 6 more NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP.
This overall process breaks down the glucose molecule, producing
2. glycolysis
Respiration requires organic molecules like glucose as fuel. Glucose is broken down through a series of steps to release chemical energy. In glycolysis, glucose is split into two pyruvate molecules in the cytoplasm. This produces two ATP molecules and reduces two NAD molecules. If oxygen is present, pyruvate enters the mitochondrion where it is converted to acetyl CoA and enters the Krebs cycle to further oxidize molecules, reducing NAD and FAD. These reduced carriers transfer hydrogen to the electron transport chain, generating ATP. Oxygen is the final hydrogen acceptor.
glycolisis: fate of pyruvate
Under aerobic conditions, pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA and enters the citric acid cycle. This is a three step process where pyruvate loses a carbon dioxide and forms a hydroxyethyl group, which is then oxidized to an acetyl group and transferred to CoA to form acetyl-CoA. Under anaerobic conditions, there are two types of fermentation where pyruvate is converted to either lactic acid via lactate fermentation or ethanol via alcohol fermentation to regenerate NAD+ and allow glycolysis to continue.
Presentation bio
The Krebs cycle begins with acetyl-CoA adding to oxaloacetate to form citrate. Citrate then rearranges to form isocitrate, and oxidative decarboxylation of isocitrate forms α-ketoglutarate. α-Ketoglutarate then undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form succinyl-CoA. Succinyl-CoA is converted to succinate, which is then oxidized to fumarate and converted to malate and finally back to oxaloacetate to complete the cycle. The cycle produces NADH, FADH2, ATP, and CO2 as byproducts and turns twice for every glucose molecule
Kr ebs cycle and anaerobic respiration
1) The Krebs cycle converts pyruvate from glycolysis into carbon dioxide to generate electron carriers and ATP.
2) One turn of the Krebs cycle produces 3 CO2, 1 ATP, 1 NADH from before Krebs, 3 NADH from Krebs, and 1 FADH2.
3) For one glucose molecule, there are two turns of the Krebs cycle, resulting in 6 CO2s, 2 ATPs, 8 NADHs, and 2 FADH2.
Glycosis
Glycolysis is a metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate and produces ATP. It occurs in two phases:
1) The energy investment phase uses 2 ATP to break down glucose into two 3-carbon molecules.
2) The energy generation phase produces 4 ATP and 2 NADH from the breakdown products.
Overall, glycolysis yields a net gain of 2 ATP per glucose molecule. The NADH produced must be used in the mitochondria to generate more ATP. Pyruvate has several possible fates depending on the organism and conditions, including entering the citric acid cycle or being converted to lactate or ethanol.
Dark Reaction Phase
Any of the chemical reactions that take place during the second stage of photosynthesis and do not require light. During the dark reactions, energy released from ATP (created by the light reactions) drives the fixation of carbon from carbon dioxide in organic molecules. The Calvin Cycle forms part of the dark reactions. As long as ATP is available, the dark reactions can occur in darkness or in light.
Cellular respiration
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate molecules. The pyruvate then enters the mitochondria where it is further oxidized and decarboxylated to form acetyl-CoA. The Krebs cycle in the mitochondrial matrix then oxidizes acetyl-CoA to produce 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP per acetyl-CoA molecule. The NADH and FADH2 are used in the electron transport chain along the inner mitochondrial membrane to create a proton gradient through chemiosmosis. ATP synthase uses this proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP into ATP.
Respiration
The document provides an overview of cellular respiration. It describes the processes of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain that break down glucose to release energy in the form of ATP. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and yields 2 ATP per glucose. The Krebs cycle and electron transport chain occur in the mitochondria using oxygen and yield approximately 38 ATP total per glucose molecule. Aerobic respiration using oxygen is about 50% efficient compared to only 2% for anaerobic respiration without oxygen.
การหายใจระดับเซลล์
Cellular respiration involves the breakdown of glucose to extract energy in the form of ATP. There are three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, capturing some energy as ATP. Pyruvate then enters the mitochondria and is broken down into acetyl-CoA to fuel the Krebs cycle. The Krebs cycle produces NADH and FADH2 to drive the electron transport chain, which generates a proton gradient to power ATP synthase and produce large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Aerobic respiration using oxygen is the most efficient way to generate ATP from glucose.
Glycoproteins and Proteoglycans and Citric acid cycle
Glycoproteins are proteins that contain carbohydrate chains covalently attached via either N- or O- linked glycosylation. Glycosaminoglycans are polysaccharides composed of repeating disaccharide units that are attached to proteins. The citric acid cycle is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that break down acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats and proteins to generate energy in the form of ATP. It involves 8 reactions occurring in 3 phases to oxidize acetyl-CoA into carbon dioxide while producing NADH, FADH2, and GTP to fuel oxidative phosphorylation and generate approximately 30-32 molecules of ATP per acetyl-CoA molecule.
09 cellrespiration text
Cellular respiration involves three main stages:
1) Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP.
2) The citric acid cycle further breaks down pyruvate and produces more ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
3) Oxidative phosphorylation uses the electrons from NADH and FADH2 to power the electron transport chain, producing large amounts of ATP through chemiosmosis. This multi-step process efficiently harvests energy from organic molecules to produce usable chemical energy in the form of ATP.
Krebscycle 100410033222-phpapp01
The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, is a series of chemical reactions that generates energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The cycle produces carbon dioxide, ATP, NADH, and FADH2 which are used to generate more ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and consists of eight steps that regenerate the starting molecule oxaloacetate from citrate. Overall, the Krebs cycle generates between 2-3 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 GTP per acetyl-CoA molecule which can then generate between
TCA cycle 2
The citric acid cycle involves 8 steps where oxaloacetate initiates and regenerates the cycle. Acetyl-CoA enters the cycle and is oxidized, producing NADH and FADH2 that feed into the electron transport chain. The cycle is regulated by substrate supply, allosteric effectors, and covalent modification of enzymes. Key enzymes like citrate synthase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase are regulated. The cycle produces most cellular energy and is important for harvesting electrons from fuels.
Resp use
This document provides an overview of aerobic cellular respiration, which includes three main steps: glycolysis, the creation of acetyl CoA, and the Krebs cycle. It explains the key reactions, locations, and products of each step. Specifically, it notes that glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate with a net production of 2 ATP and 2 NADH. Acetyl CoA is then produced from pyruvate, producing 2 more NADH. The Krebs cycle further breaks down acetyl CoA, producing 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2. Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are then transferred via the electron transport chain to power ATP synthase.
Cellular respiration within mitochondrium
1. The overall pathways of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are exergonic and produce ATP with oxygen acting as the electron acceptor.
2. Glycolysis produces 2 ATP directly from each glucose in the cytoplasm without oxygen. The citric acid cycle and electron transport chain use oxygen to produce 36 ATP from each pyruvate in the mitochondria.
3. Each pathway generates ATP in different ways: glycolysis - 2 ATP directly; acetyl CoA activation - none; citric acid cycle - 2 ATP directly and generates NADH and FADH2 which are used to produce ATP.
Beta oxidation
Fatty acid catabolism, or beta-oxidation, is the process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria to generate energy. The document outlines that beta-oxidation of palmitate, a 16-carbon fatty acid, yields 106 molecules of ATP through multiple steps where acetyl-CoA molecules are produced, generating 80 ATP equivalents total. NADH and FADH2 are also produced, contributing another 17.5 and 10.5 ATP equivalents respectively.
Oxidation of fatty acids
The document summarizes the process of beta oxidation, which is the pathway by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria to generate acetyl-CoA molecules. It involves four key steps: 1) oxidation of the alpha and beta carbons to form a double bond, producing FADH2. 2) Addition of a water molecule to form a beta-hydroxy group. 3) Oxidation of the beta-hydroxy group to a ketone. 4) Cleavage of the fatty acid chain between the alpha and beta carbons, producing acetyl-CoA. This repetitive process degrades acyl-CoA molecules into acetyl-CoA, releasing energy molecules FADH2 and NADH.
Cell respiration part 2
- The Krebs cycle produces small amounts of ATP but large amounts of electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) which are used in the electron transport chain to produce large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
- For one glucose molecule, the Krebs cycle turns twice, producing a total of 6 CO2 molecules, 2 ATP, 8 NADH, and 2 FADH2.
- When oxygen is limited, cells undergo fermentation instead of the Krebs cycle, producing either lactic acid or ethanol and regenerating NAD+ without oxygen to continue glycolysis. Fermentation allows short term energy production without oxygen.
Beta oxidation and its bioenergetics.
Beta oxidation is the process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria to generate acetyl-CoA. This involves four steps - dehydrogenation, hydration, oxidation, and cleavage - that occur on the beta carbon of fatty acyl-CoA molecules. Each cycle shortens the fatty acyl-CoA by two carbons and generates acetyl-CoA, FADH2, and NADH. This process is repeated until the fatty acid is completely broken down. Unsaturated fatty acids require additional enzymes for isomerization and reduction to allow all steps of beta oxidation to occur. Overall, beta oxidation generates energy in the form of ATP.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a 10 step pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate or lactate with no oxygen present. This generates energy in the form of ATP and reduces NAD+ to NADH. Three steps in glycolysis are regulated by enzymes like phosphofructokinase-1 to control the flow of metabolites into or out of the pathway based on the cell's energy and nutrient needs.
Membrane Dynamics1
The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, is a series of chemical reactions that takes place in the mitochondrial matrix. The overall goals of the Krebs cycle are to generate ATP, NADH, and FADH2 from carbohydrates through oxidative processes. During the Krebs cycle, acetyl-CoA derived from pyruvate is oxidized, releasing carbon dioxide and generating electron carriers to fuel the electron transport chain and produce more ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The Krebs cycle occurs in two turns per glucose molecule and generates six NADH, two FADH2, and two GTP, which can ultimately produce between 25-32 ATP
Respiration 5 oxidative phosphorylation and chemiosmosis
1) Oxidative phosphorylation involves electrons from NADH and FADH2 being passed through electron carriers in the electron transport chain, generating a proton gradient.
2) During chemiosmosis, the proton gradient drives protons through ATP synthase, causing it to rotate and join ADP and Pi to make ATP.
3) Oxygen is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration, accepting electrons and protons to form water.
General Physiology (Bio 109) - Cellular respiration with questions at the end
General Physiology (Bio 109) - Cellular respiration with questions at the endShaina Mavreen Villaroza
Cellular respiration is a catabolic process that uses oxygen to break down glucose and other macromolecules to produce energy in the form of ATP. It occurs in the mitochondria of plant and animal cells. The process involves four main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, the electron transport chain, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol and splits glucose into two pyruvate molecules while producing a small amount of ATP.2 photosynthesis 1
Photosynthesis uses light energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen. This process takes place in two stages - the light reactions and the Calvin cycle. In the light reactions, light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll and used to add electrons to NADP+, producing ATP and NADPH. These products are then used in the Calvin cycle to fix carbon from carbon dioxide into three-carbon sugar molecules, which can then be converted into glucose.
C4 pathway
In some plant species, alternate modes of carbon fixation have evolved that minimize photorespiration and optimize the calvin cycle.
Action Potential
A nerve is composed of a bundle of neurons connected by synapses, with glial cells and blood vessels providing support. Action potentials travel along axons when a stimulus depolarizes the neuron's membrane enough to open voltage-gated sodium channels, flooding the intracellular space with sodium ions and causing a rapid increase in membrane potential. This wave of depolarization then propagates along the axon. Myelin sheaths allow the impulse to "jump" between nodes of Ranvier, increasing conduction velocity.
Eye
The eye contains the cornea, lens, retina, rods, and cones. Light enters through the cornea and lens, and the inverted image is projected onto the retina. The retina contains photoreceptors called rods and cones that convert light into electrical signals sent through the optic nerve to the brain. Cones provide color vision and see in bright light, while rods see in low light with less resolution and color. Different wavelengths of light stimulate the pigments in the cones, allowing us to see red, blue, and green colors.
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Dark Reaction Phase
Any of the chemical reactions that take place during the second stage of photosynthesis and do not require light. During the dark reactions, energy released from ATP (created by the light reactions) drives the fixation of carbon from carbon dioxide in organic molecules. The Calvin Cycle forms part of the dark reactions. As long as ATP is available, the dark reactions can occur in darkness or in light.
Cellular respiration
Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate molecules. The pyruvate then enters the mitochondria where it is further oxidized and decarboxylated to form acetyl-CoA. The Krebs cycle in the mitochondrial matrix then oxidizes acetyl-CoA to produce 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 ATP per acetyl-CoA molecule. The NADH and FADH2 are used in the electron transport chain along the inner mitochondrial membrane to create a proton gradient through chemiosmosis. ATP synthase uses this proton gradient to phosphorylate ADP into ATP.
Respiration
The document provides an overview of cellular respiration. It describes the processes of glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain that break down glucose to release energy in the form of ATP. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and yields 2 ATP per glucose. The Krebs cycle and electron transport chain occur in the mitochondria using oxygen and yield approximately 38 ATP total per glucose molecule. Aerobic respiration using oxygen is about 50% efficient compared to only 2% for anaerobic respiration without oxygen.
การหายใจระดับเซลล์
Cellular respiration involves the breakdown of glucose to extract energy in the form of ATP. There are three main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle in the mitochondria, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, capturing some energy as ATP. Pyruvate then enters the mitochondria and is broken down into acetyl-CoA to fuel the Krebs cycle. The Krebs cycle produces NADH and FADH2 to drive the electron transport chain, which generates a proton gradient to power ATP synthase and produce large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Aerobic respiration using oxygen is the most efficient way to generate ATP from glucose.
Glycoproteins and Proteoglycans and Citric acid cycle
Glycoproteins are proteins that contain carbohydrate chains covalently attached via either N- or O- linked glycosylation. Glycosaminoglycans are polysaccharides composed of repeating disaccharide units that are attached to proteins. The citric acid cycle is a series of chemical reactions in the mitochondria that break down acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats and proteins to generate energy in the form of ATP. It involves 8 reactions occurring in 3 phases to oxidize acetyl-CoA into carbon dioxide while producing NADH, FADH2, and GTP to fuel oxidative phosphorylation and generate approximately 30-32 molecules of ATP per acetyl-CoA molecule.
09 cellrespiration text
Cellular respiration involves three main stages:
1) Glycolysis breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a small amount of ATP.
2) The citric acid cycle further breaks down pyruvate and produces more ATP, NADH, and FADH2.
3) Oxidative phosphorylation uses the electrons from NADH and FADH2 to power the electron transport chain, producing large amounts of ATP through chemiosmosis. This multi-step process efficiently harvests energy from organic molecules to produce usable chemical energy in the form of ATP.
Krebscycle 100410033222-phpapp01
The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, is a series of chemical reactions that generates energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. The cycle produces carbon dioxide, ATP, NADH, and FADH2 which are used to generate more ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and consists of eight steps that regenerate the starting molecule oxaloacetate from citrate. Overall, the Krebs cycle generates between 2-3 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2, and 2 GTP per acetyl-CoA molecule which can then generate between
TCA cycle 2
The citric acid cycle involves 8 steps where oxaloacetate initiates and regenerates the cycle. Acetyl-CoA enters the cycle and is oxidized, producing NADH and FADH2 that feed into the electron transport chain. The cycle is regulated by substrate supply, allosteric effectors, and covalent modification of enzymes. Key enzymes like citrate synthase, isocitrate dehydrogenase, and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase are regulated. The cycle produces most cellular energy and is important for harvesting electrons from fuels.
Resp use
This document provides an overview of aerobic cellular respiration, which includes three main steps: glycolysis, the creation of acetyl CoA, and the Krebs cycle. It explains the key reactions, locations, and products of each step. Specifically, it notes that glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate with a net production of 2 ATP and 2 NADH. Acetyl CoA is then produced from pyruvate, producing 2 more NADH. The Krebs cycle further breaks down acetyl CoA, producing 2 ATP, 6 NADH, and 2 FADH2. Electrons from NADH and FADH2 are then transferred via the electron transport chain to power ATP synthase.
Cellular respiration within mitochondrium
1. The overall pathways of glycolysis and the citric acid cycle are exergonic and produce ATP with oxygen acting as the electron acceptor.
2. Glycolysis produces 2 ATP directly from each glucose in the cytoplasm without oxygen. The citric acid cycle and electron transport chain use oxygen to produce 36 ATP from each pyruvate in the mitochondria.
3. Each pathway generates ATP in different ways: glycolysis - 2 ATP directly; acetyl CoA activation - none; citric acid cycle - 2 ATP directly and generates NADH and FADH2 which are used to produce ATP.
Beta oxidation
Fatty acid catabolism, or beta-oxidation, is the process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria to generate energy. The document outlines that beta-oxidation of palmitate, a 16-carbon fatty acid, yields 106 molecules of ATP through multiple steps where acetyl-CoA molecules are produced, generating 80 ATP equivalents total. NADH and FADH2 are also produced, contributing another 17.5 and 10.5 ATP equivalents respectively.
Oxidation of fatty acids
The document summarizes the process of beta oxidation, which is the pathway by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria to generate acetyl-CoA molecules. It involves four key steps: 1) oxidation of the alpha and beta carbons to form a double bond, producing FADH2. 2) Addition of a water molecule to form a beta-hydroxy group. 3) Oxidation of the beta-hydroxy group to a ketone. 4) Cleavage of the fatty acid chain between the alpha and beta carbons, producing acetyl-CoA. This repetitive process degrades acyl-CoA molecules into acetyl-CoA, releasing energy molecules FADH2 and NADH.
Cell respiration part 2
- The Krebs cycle produces small amounts of ATP but large amounts of electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) which are used in the electron transport chain to produce large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
- For one glucose molecule, the Krebs cycle turns twice, producing a total of 6 CO2 molecules, 2 ATP, 8 NADH, and 2 FADH2.
- When oxygen is limited, cells undergo fermentation instead of the Krebs cycle, producing either lactic acid or ethanol and regenerating NAD+ without oxygen to continue glycolysis. Fermentation allows short term energy production without oxygen.
Beta oxidation and its bioenergetics.
Beta oxidation is the process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria to generate acetyl-CoA. This involves four steps - dehydrogenation, hydration, oxidation, and cleavage - that occur on the beta carbon of fatty acyl-CoA molecules. Each cycle shortens the fatty acyl-CoA by two carbons and generates acetyl-CoA, FADH2, and NADH. This process is repeated until the fatty acid is completely broken down. Unsaturated fatty acids require additional enzymes for isomerization and reduction to allow all steps of beta oxidation to occur. Overall, beta oxidation generates energy in the form of ATP.
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is a 10 step pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate or lactate with no oxygen present. This generates energy in the form of ATP and reduces NAD+ to NADH. Three steps in glycolysis are regulated by enzymes like phosphofructokinase-1 to control the flow of metabolites into or out of the pathway based on the cell's energy and nutrient needs.
Membrane Dynamics1
The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, is a series of chemical reactions that takes place in the mitochondrial matrix. The overall goals of the Krebs cycle are to generate ATP, NADH, and FADH2 from carbohydrates through oxidative processes. During the Krebs cycle, acetyl-CoA derived from pyruvate is oxidized, releasing carbon dioxide and generating electron carriers to fuel the electron transport chain and produce more ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The Krebs cycle occurs in two turns per glucose molecule and generates six NADH, two FADH2, and two GTP, which can ultimately produce between 25-32 ATP
Respiration 5 oxidative phosphorylation and chemiosmosis
1) Oxidative phosphorylation involves electrons from NADH and FADH2 being passed through electron carriers in the electron transport chain, generating a proton gradient.
2) During chemiosmosis, the proton gradient drives protons through ATP synthase, causing it to rotate and join ADP and Pi to make ATP.
3) Oxygen is the final electron acceptor in aerobic respiration, accepting electrons and protons to form water.
General Physiology (Bio 109) - Cellular respiration with questions at the end
General Physiology (Bio 109) - Cellular respiration with questions at the endShaina Mavreen Villaroza
Cellular respiration is a catabolic process that uses oxygen to break down glucose and other macromolecules to produce energy in the form of ATP. It occurs in the mitochondria of plant and animal cells. The process involves four main stages: glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, the electron transport chain, and oxidative phosphorylation. Glycolysis occurs in the cytosol and splits glucose into two pyruvate molecules while producing a small amount of ATP.2 photosynthesis 1
Photosynthesis uses light energy from the sun to convert carbon dioxide and water into glucose and oxygen. This process takes place in two stages - the light reactions and the Calvin cycle. In the light reactions, light energy is absorbed by chlorophyll and used to add electrons to NADP+, producing ATP and NADPH. These products are then used in the Calvin cycle to fix carbon from carbon dioxide into three-carbon sugar molecules, which can then be converted into glucose.
C4 pathway
In some plant species, alternate modes of carbon fixation have evolved that minimize photorespiration and optimize the calvin cycle.
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Glycoproteins and Proteoglycans and Citric acid cycle
Glycoproteins and Proteoglycans and Citric acid cycle
Respiration 5 oxidative phosphorylation and chemiosmosis
Respiration 5 oxidative phosphorylation and chemiosmosis
General Physiology (Bio 109) - Cellular respiration with questions at the end
General Physiology (Bio 109) - Cellular respiration with questions at the end
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Action Potential
A nerve is composed of a bundle of neurons connected by synapses, with glial cells and blood vessels providing support. Action potentials travel along axons when a stimulus depolarizes the neuron's membrane enough to open voltage-gated sodium channels, flooding the intracellular space with sodium ions and causing a rapid increase in membrane potential. This wave of depolarization then propagates along the axon. Myelin sheaths allow the impulse to "jump" between nodes of Ranvier, increasing conduction velocity.
Eye
The eye contains the cornea, lens, retina, rods, and cones. Light enters through the cornea and lens, and the inverted image is projected onto the retina. The retina contains photoreceptors called rods and cones that convert light into electrical signals sent through the optic nerve to the brain. Cones provide color vision and see in bright light, while rods see in low light with less resolution and color. Different wavelengths of light stimulate the pigments in the cones, allowing us to see red, blue, and green colors.
Typesof photosynthesis
There are three main types of photosynthesis: C3, C4, and CAM. C3 photosynthesis is most efficient under normal conditions and is used by most plants. C4 photosynthesis is faster under high heat/light and avoids photorespiration. C4 plants include many grasses and desert plants. CAM photosynthesis stores CO2 at night and is most efficient for water use; it is used by plants like cacti and bromeliads.
Reprod hormones
Human reproductive processes are regulated by hormone cycles. Eggs mature and are released during the menstrual cycle, which has three phases - flow, follicular, and luteal. Fertilization occurs when a sperm joins an egg to form a zygote. Sperm production in males is also regulated by hormones. Sexually transmitted diseases can impact fertility and overall health if not treated.
Brain
The document summarizes the main parts and functions of the human brain. It describes the brain stem as the oldest part that controls vital functions like breathing and heart rate. It then discusses the cerebellum which coordinates movement. The two main parts of the forebrain are the diencephalon, which includes the thalamus and hypothalamus, and the cerebrum, which is the largest part and controls higher functions through its four lobes and cortex. Motor and sensory functions are localized in different areas of the cortex.
Response to Stress
Stress causes demands on the body and non-specific responses that can cause temporary or permanent physiological changes. The adrenal cortex releases cortisol and aldosterone in response to stress, with cortisol breaking down fats and proteins to raise blood glucose levels while suppressing the immune and inflammatory responses, and aldosterone retaining sodium and water through the kidneys to increase blood volume and pressure. Prolonged high cortisol exposure can lead to Cushing's disease.
Action potential
An action potential is a rapid change in the electrical potential of a neuron's membrane. When a stimulus reaches the threshold level, voltage-gated sodium channels open, allowing sodium ions to rush into the neuron. This reversal of the membrane potential propagates along the axon as it triggers adjacent sodium channels. Once the peak is reached, voltage-gated potassium channels open to return the membrane potential to its resting state. The sodium-potassium pump then restores the ion concentrations, and the neuron enters a refractory period where it cannot fire again. Myelin sheaths allow the action potential to propagate rapidly along the axon.
Factors Affecting Photosynthesis
The document discusses factors that affect the rate of photosynthesis in plants, including light intensity, carbon dioxide levels, and temperature. It states that initially increasing levels of these factors increases the photosynthesis rate, but the rate levels off at their maximum. Temperature peaks and then the rate decreases if it is too high. The role of the enzyme rubisco is also discussed, which incorporates carbon dioxide but can also incorporate oxygen if levels are high.
Regulation of blood sugar
The pancreas regulates blood sugar levels through the hormones insulin and glucagon. Insulin is released when blood sugar is high and promotes the uptake of glucose into cells. Glucagon is released when blood sugar is low and breaks down glycogen to release glucose. Diabetes occurs when the body does not produce enough insulin or the cells ignore insulin, resulting in high blood sugar levels. There are different types of diabetes diagnosed through blood tests and managed through insulin injections, diet, exercise and monitoring of blood sugar levels. Diabetes is a growing global health problem.
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3. link and krebs cycle
The document summarizes the key steps in the Krebs cycle (also known as the citric acid or tricarboxylic acid cycle). The Krebs cycle is a series of enzyme-controlled reactions where acetyl groups from pyruvate enter the cycle in the form of acetyl-CoA. Acetyl-CoA combines with oxaloacetate to form the six-carbon compound citrate. Citrate then undergoes a series of reactions where it is dehydrogenated and decarboxylated, removing carbons and producing CO2, while also generating reduced NAD, FAD, and one ATP via substrate-level phosphorylation. Two turns of the Krebs cycle are required for each glucose molecule, ultimately producing 4
Citric cycle or Kerbs cycle
The citric acid cycle (also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle) is a series of oxidation-reduction reactions in mitochondria that oxidizes acetyl groups and reduces coenzymes, which are then reoxidized to generate ATP. The cycle takes place in the mitochondrial matrix and is the primary step of aerobic processing in eukaryotic cells. It oxidizes glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids to carbon dioxide while collecting electrons to produce NADH and FADH2, which power the electron transport chain to generate ATP. The cycle was discovered by Hans Krebs in 1937 and is the central metabolic hub of the cell.
Krebs cycle/ TCA Cycle/ Citric Acid Cycle/ Tri Carboxylic Acid Cycle/ CAC
The Krebs cycle, also known as the citric acid cycle or TCA cycle, is the final common pathway that generates energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2 from the oxidation of pyruvate from glycolysis. Pyruvate enters the mitochondria and is converted to acetyl-CoA which condenses with oxaloacetate to form citrate, initiating the Krebs cycle. As the cycle progresses through 10 steps, high-energy electron carriers and GTP are produced to generate ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The cycle regenerates oxaloacetate to continue multiple turns, completely oxidizing acetyl-CoA molecules for maximum energy production.
Respiration
1) Aerobic respiration has four stages: glycolysis, the link reaction, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
2) Glycolysis breaks down glucose and produces pyruvate and a small amount of ATP. The link reaction converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA.
3) The Krebs cycle uses acetyl-CoA to generate ATP, reduced NADH, and reduced FADH2.
4) During oxidative phosphorylation, the electron transport chain uses the energy from NADH and FADH2 to pump protons across the mitochondrial membrane, creating a proton gradient. ATP synthase uses this gradient to produce large amounts of ATP through chemiosmosis.
Chapter 16 - The citric acid cycle - Biochemistry
The document discusses cellular respiration, which occurs in three stages: 1) acetyl-CoA production from organic fuels like glucose and fatty acids, 2) acetyl-CoA oxidation in the citric acid cycle (CAC) to produce NADH, FADH2, and GTP, and 3) oxidative phosphorylation to generate large amounts of ATP. The citric acid cycle involves a series of chemical reactions that generate energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2. These stages capture energy from nutrients and transfer it to ATP via electron transport chains located in cellular organelles like mitochondria.
Chapter16 160419082018
The document discusses cellular respiration, which occurs in three stages: 1) acetyl-CoA production from organic fuels like glucose and fatty acids, 2) acetyl-CoA oxidation in the citric acid cycle (CAC) to produce NADH, FADH2, and GTP, and 3) oxidative phosphorylation to generate large amounts of ATP. The citric acid cycle involves a series of chemical reactions that generate energy in the form of ATP, NADH, and FADH2. These stages capture energy from nutrients and facilitate the production of ATP to fuel cellular work.
cellular respiration and ATP stnthesis update .pptx
ATP functions as the energy currency of cells, being produced through two main processes - photosynthesis and cellular respiration. During cellular respiration, ATP is synthesized through a series of redox reactions that take place in the mitochondria. [Glycolysis breaks down glucose in the cytoplasm, producing pyruvate and ATP. Pyruvate then undergoes further reactions in the mitochondria, being converted to acetyl-CoA and entering the Krebs cycle, with electrons being transferred to NADH and FADH2. These electron carriers provide energy to power the electron transport chain, where a proton gradient is used to synthesize large amounts of ATP through chemiosmosis.]
Respiration
1) Aerobic respiration has four stages: glycolysis, the link reaction, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
2) Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and produces pyruvate from glucose. The last three stages occur in the mitochondria.
3) The Krebs cycle produces reduced coenzymes, CO2, and ATP through a series of oxidation-reduction reactions in the mitochondrial matrix. Products are used in subsequent stages of respiration.
Chapter 16.pdf
The citric acid cycle (CAC) is the second stage of cellular respiration that occurs in the mitochondria. It fully oxidizes acetyl-CoA derived from glucose, fatty acid, and amino acid breakdown to carbon dioxide. Each turn of the CAC generates reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH2 that drive oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP, as well as GTP through substrate-level phosphorylation. The CAC is tightly regulated by product inhibition and substrate availability to balance energy production with the needs of the cell.
Krebs cycle
The document discusses the citric acid cycle, also known as the Krebs cycle or TCA cycle. It provides information on:
1) The cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and involves a series of chemical reactions that oxidize acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to produce carbon dioxide, NADH, and FADH2 to generate energy.
2) Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex in the mitochondria, providing the two-carbon unit that enters the Krebs cycle.
3) The cycle is amphibolic, meaning it is both catabolic, breaking down molecules, and anabolic,
Cellular Respiration
Cellular respiration ppt, describes generalities about energy and ATP, and the three stages of cellular respiration: Gylolisis, Krebs Cylce and Electron transport chain.
Energy-ATP-and-Respiratoin.pptx
The document summarizes cellular respiration and the role of ATP. It explains that ATP is the universal energy currency that is produced through a series of steps: glycolysis, the link reaction, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. Glycolysis breaks down glucose to produce 2 ATP, while the other steps oxidize acetyl CoA completely to produce a net total of 38 ATP per glucose molecule. The process requires oxygen, but anaerobic respiration can produce a small amount of ATP without oxygen through fermentation or lactic acid production.
Cellular Respiration for 10th grade
1) Cellular respiration involves the breakdown of glucose and other food molecules to harvest energy in the form of ATP.
2) The three main stages of cellular respiration are glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and the electron transport chain.
3) Glycolysis breaks down glucose and produces 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvate molecules. The pyruvate then enters the citric acid cycle.
4) The citric acid cycle further breaks down the pyruvate and produces more ATP, NADH, and FADH2. These electron carriers then enter the electron transport chain.
5) In the electron transport chain, electrons are passed through protein complexes
Glycolysis
Glycolysis is the process by which cells break down glucose to derive energy. It occurs in two phases through 10 steps, producing 2 ATP, 2 NADH, and 2 pyruvic acid molecules per glucose molecule. Beta oxidation is the process by which fatty acids are broken down in the mitochondria to derive energy. It occurs through activation, transport into the mitochondria via carnitine shuttle, and four cycles of beta-oxidation per fatty acid, producing acetyl-CoA, NADH, and FADH2. The products of glycolysis and beta oxidation then enter the citric acid cycle and electron transport chain to generate large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
Cellresp.
Cellular respiration involves a series of metabolic pathways that break down glucose and harvest energy to produce ATP. There are four main stages: glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. During these stages, glucose is broken down and electrons are transferred to create energy carriers like NADH and FADH2. These energy carriers then transfer electrons through the electron transport chain, pumping hydrogen ions across a membrane and driving ATP synthase to produce ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The entire process of aerobic cellular respiration produces approximately 30-32 molecules of ATP from each glucose molecule.
Cellular respiration
1) Cellular respiration harvests energy from molecules like glucose to produce ATP through two main stages: glycolysis and aerobic respiration.
2) Glycolysis involves breaking down glucose into pyruvic acid, producing some ATP and NADH. Pyruvic acid can then undergo fermentation or be converted to acetyl-CoA to enter the Krebs cycle.
3) The Krebs cycle in the mitochondria further breaks down acetyl-CoA to produce more ATP, NADH, FADH2, and carbon dioxide. The electron transport chain then uses the NADH and FADH2 to produce even more ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
Cell respiration-apbio-1204285933555932-5
1. Glucose is broken down into pyruvate through glycolysis, which yields 2 ATP and 2 NADH per glucose molecule.
2. In the mitochondria, pyruvate is broken down into acetyl CoA, producing CO2 and NADH. Acetyl CoA then enters the Krebs cycle.
3. The Krebs cycle further oxidizes acetyl CoA, producing CO2 and loading electron carriers NADH and FADH2. One ATP is also generated per acetyl CoA in the Krebs cycle. The electron carriers are used to power ATP production through oxidative phosphorylation.
'The kreb's cycle' - class 11 cbse
The citric acid cycle occurs in the mitochondrion matrix. A two-carbon acetyl CoA molecule joins with a four-carbon compound to form citric acid, a six-carbon compound. Citric acid is converted back to the four-carbon compound, releasing carbon dioxide and hydrogen, which joins with NAD to form NADH2. NADH2 transfers hydrogen through the electron transport chain, producing ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. The cycle continuously converts nutrients into energy in the form of ATP.
Bio 100 Chapter 7
Cellular respiration involves the breakdown of glucose to release energy through a series of redox reactions. There are four stages: glycolysis, the preparatory reaction, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. These stages occur in both the cytoplasm and mitochondria, with oxygen as the final electron acceptor. The process generates approximately 38 ATP per glucose molecule through oxidative phosphorylation. When oxygen is limited, fermentation allows limited ATP production without oxygen.
krebscycle/TCA cycle-Metabolic pathways.pptx
The Krebs cycle occurs in the mitochondrial matrix and is a series of chemical reactions that generates energy through the oxidation of acetate derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. It was discovered in 1937 by Hans Adolf Krebs and is also known as the citric acid cycle or tricarboxylic acid cycle. Each turn of the cycle produces ATP, NADH, and FADH2 that are used in cellular respiration to produce more ATP. Pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA, which enters the Krebs cycle to be oxidized, producing carbon dioxide and more reduced coenzymes.
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Krebs cycle/ TCA Cycle/ Citric Acid Cycle/ Tri Carboxylic Acid Cycle/ CAC
Krebs cycle/ TCA Cycle/ Citric Acid Cycle/ Tri Carboxylic Acid Cycle/ CAC
cellular respiration and ATP stnthesis update .pptx
cellular respiration and ATP stnthesis update .pptx
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Thermo adapt
Van't Hoff's Rule states that biochemical reaction rates double for every 10 degree Celsius increase in temperature, up to a point. Animals regulate their body temperature through physiological and behavioral adaptations. Endotherms like birds and mammals generate their own body heat through metabolism, while ectotherms rely on environmental heat sources. Smaller animals have higher mass-specific metabolic rates than larger animals due to greater surface area to volume ratios and heat loss. Increased stamina through endothermy provided evolutionary advantages over ectothermy.
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Photosynthesis Pres
The document summarizes the process of photosynthesis. It describes how photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts, which contain chlorophyll pigments embedded in the thylakoid membrane. The pigments absorb light energy which is used to transfer electrons along the membrane. This powers the synthesis of ATP and NADPH, providing chemical energy. The light reactions are followed by the dark reactions, where carbon dioxide is fixed and organic molecules like glucose are produced in the Calvin cycle within the chloroplast stroma.
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Cellular respiration is regulated through feedback mechanisms that control the activity of enzymes. Phosphofructokinase, a key enzyme in glycolysis, is inhibited by ATP and citrate but stimulated by AMP. This allows the rate of glycolysis and the Krebs cycle to increase when ATP levels drop and more ATP needs to be produced, and decrease when ATP levels are high. Overall, feedback inhibition and control of enzyme activity allows cells to efficiently regulate their metabolism based on energy demands.
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More from MrWestbury (8)
Krebs
- 1. After Glycolysis we have: 2 NADH, 4 ATP 2 Pyruvate (3C) Process was Anaerobic & took place in the cytoplasm of ALL cells No O2 is required and the yield of ATP from a molecule of glucose is relatively small What is the fate of pyruvate?
- 2. Fate of Pyruvate In order to keep glycolysis going the NADH formed must be oxidized back to NAD+. This can be done Aerobically (with O2) or Anaerobically (without O2)
- 3. Anaerobic Breakdown of Pyruvate Goal is to recycle NAD+/NADH and keep Glycolysis running
- 4. The Mitochondrion Double Membrane Possesses its own DNA (mtDNA) Inner Membrane is folded into CRISTAE Space inside the Inner Membrane is known as the MATRIX Site of AEROBIC RESPIRATION Krebs or Citric Acid Cycle Electron Transport Chain
- 5. The Krebs Cycle Final Breakdown of Glucose • Production of CO2 Series of REDOX Reactions •LEO GER Occurs in the Matrix
- 6. Transition Reaction Oxidation of Pyruvate (3C -> 2C) – Pyruvate is Oxidized – NAD+ --> NADH – CO2 removed (COO-) & Co-A added
- 7. STEP 1: •Acetyl-CoA adds its 2C to Oxaloacetate (4C) producing Citrate (6C)
- 8. STEP 2: •Citrate converted to IsoCitrate by the removal & addition of H2O
- 9. STEP 3: OXIDATION & De-Carboxylation •Isocitrate is oxidized: NAD+ is reduced to NADH •Carboxyl group -COO- is removed and exits as CO2 •6C --> 5C α-Ketoglutarate
- 10. STEP 4: OXIDATION & De-Carboxylation ∀α-Ketoglutarate is oxidized & NAD+ is reduced to NADH •Again -COO- is removed as CO2 •Co-enzyme A is attached again •5C --> 4C Succinyl-CoA
- 11. STEP 5: •CoA is replaced by a PO4 group •Succinyl-CoA (4C) --> Succinate (4C) •PO4 group is then passed to GDP -> GTP •GTP is then transformed into ATP •In prokaryotes & plants ATP is made directly in this step
- 12. STEP 6: OXIDATION •Succinate is oxidized & electrons are transferred to FAD+ to form FADH2 •FADH2 is similar to NADH and goes to the ETC FAD+ = flavin adenine dinucleotide … comes from riboflavin (B-Vitamin) •Succinate (4C) --> Fumarate (4C)
- 13. STEP 7: •Addition of H2O to form 4C Malate
- 14. STEP 8: OXIDATION •Malate is oxidized to form Oxaloacetate which can regenerate the Krebs Cycle •NAD+ is reduced to NADH
- 15. Final Notes 1. Book-Keeping – For each pyruvate: • 4 NADH formed, 1 FADH2 • 1 ATP (as GTP) • Double this to get the total for 1 glucose molecule 1. Carbons – It takes 3 turns of the Krebs cycle for the 1st set of C’s from acetyl-CoA to be removed 1. Where’s the Oxygen???