The document discusses various communication channels and transmission mediums. It describes wired mediums like two-wire open lines, coaxial cable, and twisted pair lines. It also describes wireless transmission methods like microwave communication, radio, and satellite communication. For each medium, it provides details on bandwidth capacity, common types used, and advantages and disadvantages. The document also discusses channel capacity concepts like Nyquist rate and Shannon-Hartley theorem, and how noise affects channel capacity and data rates.
Wireless Communication and Networking by WilliamStallings Chap2Senthil Kanth
Hai I'm Senthilkanth, doing MCA in Mepco Schlenk Engineering College..
The following presentation covers topic called Wireless Communication and Networking
by WilliamStallings for BSc CS, BCA, MSc CS, MCA, ME students.Make use of it.
Wireless Communication and Networking
by WilliamStallings Chapter : 2Transmission Fundamentals
Chapter 2
Electromagnetic Signal
Function of time
Can also be expressed as a function of frequency
Signal consists of components of different frequencies
Time-Domain Concepts
Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time
No breaks or discontinuities in the signal
Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a constant level for some period of time and then changes to another constant level
Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that repeats over time
s(t +T ) = s(t ) -¥< t < +¥
where T is the period of the signal
Time-Domain Concepts
Aperiodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that doesn't repeat over time
Peak amplitude (A) - maximum value or strength of the signal over time; typically measured in volts
Frequency (f )
Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) at which the signal repeats
Time-Domain Concepts
Period (T ) - amount of time it takes for one repetition of the signal
T = 1/f
Phase () - measure of the relative position in time within a single period of a signal
Wavelength () - distance occupied by a single cycle of the signal
Or, the distance between two points of corresponding phase of two consecutive cycles
Sine Wave Parameters
General sine wave
s(t ) = A sin(2ft + )
Figure 2.3 shows the effect of varying each of the three parameters
(a) A = 1, f = 1 Hz, = 0; thus T = 1s
(b) Reduced peak amplitude; A=0.5
(c) Increased frequency; f = 2, thus T = ½
(d) Phase shift; = /4 radians (45 degrees)
note: 2 radians = 360° = 1 period
Sine Wave Parameters
Time vs. Distance
When the horizontal axis is time, as in Figure 2.3, graphs display the value of a signal at a given point in space as a function of time
With the horizontal axis in space, graphs display the value of a signal at a given point in time as a function of distance
At a particular instant of time, the intensity of the signal varies as a function of distance from the source
Frequency-Domain Concepts
Fundamental frequency - when all frequency components of a signal are integer multiples of one frequency, it’s referred to as the fundamental frequency
Spectrum - range of frequencies that a signal contains
Absolute bandwidth - width of the spectrum of a signal
Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth) - narrow band of frequencies that most of the signal’s energy is contained in
Frequency-Domain Concepts
Any electromagnetic signal can be shown to consist of a collection of periodic analog signals (sine waves) at different amplitudes, frequencies, and phases
The period of the total signal is equal to the period of the fundamenta
Wireless Communication and Networking by WilliamStallings Chap2Senthil Kanth
Hai I'm Senthilkanth, doing MCA in Mepco Schlenk Engineering College..
The following presentation covers topic called Wireless Communication and Networking
by WilliamStallings for BSc CS, BCA, MSc CS, MCA, ME students.Make use of it.
Wireless Communication and Networking
by WilliamStallings Chapter : 2Transmission Fundamentals
Chapter 2
Electromagnetic Signal
Function of time
Can also be expressed as a function of frequency
Signal consists of components of different frequencies
Time-Domain Concepts
Analog signal - signal intensity varies in a smooth fashion over time
No breaks or discontinuities in the signal
Digital signal - signal intensity maintains a constant level for some period of time and then changes to another constant level
Periodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that repeats over time
s(t +T ) = s(t ) -¥< t < +¥
where T is the period of the signal
Time-Domain Concepts
Aperiodic signal - analog or digital signal pattern that doesn't repeat over time
Peak amplitude (A) - maximum value or strength of the signal over time; typically measured in volts
Frequency (f )
Rate, in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz) at which the signal repeats
Time-Domain Concepts
Period (T ) - amount of time it takes for one repetition of the signal
T = 1/f
Phase () - measure of the relative position in time within a single period of a signal
Wavelength () - distance occupied by a single cycle of the signal
Or, the distance between two points of corresponding phase of two consecutive cycles
Sine Wave Parameters
General sine wave
s(t ) = A sin(2ft + )
Figure 2.3 shows the effect of varying each of the three parameters
(a) A = 1, f = 1 Hz, = 0; thus T = 1s
(b) Reduced peak amplitude; A=0.5
(c) Increased frequency; f = 2, thus T = ½
(d) Phase shift; = /4 radians (45 degrees)
note: 2 radians = 360° = 1 period
Sine Wave Parameters
Time vs. Distance
When the horizontal axis is time, as in Figure 2.3, graphs display the value of a signal at a given point in space as a function of time
With the horizontal axis in space, graphs display the value of a signal at a given point in time as a function of distance
At a particular instant of time, the intensity of the signal varies as a function of distance from the source
Frequency-Domain Concepts
Fundamental frequency - when all frequency components of a signal are integer multiples of one frequency, it’s referred to as the fundamental frequency
Spectrum - range of frequencies that a signal contains
Absolute bandwidth - width of the spectrum of a signal
Effective bandwidth (or just bandwidth) - narrow band of frequencies that most of the signal’s energy is contained in
Frequency-Domain Concepts
Any electromagnetic signal can be shown to consist of a collection of periodic analog signals (sine waves) at different amplitudes, frequencies, and phases
The period of the total signal is equal to the period of the fundamenta
Chapter 4-Transmission Media - guided and unguided .pptxssuser32eccd
transmission medium is the physical path between transmitter and receiver
guided media – guided along a solid medium
unguided media – atmosphere, space, water
characteristics and quality determined by medium and signal
guided media - medium is more important
unguided media - bandwidth produced by the antenna is more important
key concerns are data rate and distance
Event Report - SAP Sapphire 2024 Orlando - lots of innovation and old challengesHolger Mueller
Holger Mueller of Constellation Research shares his key takeaways from SAP's Sapphire confernece, held in Orlando, June 3rd till 5th 2024, in the Orange Convention Center.
"𝑩𝑬𝑮𝑼𝑵 𝑾𝑰𝑻𝑯 𝑻𝑱 𝑰𝑺 𝑯𝑨𝑳𝑭 𝑫𝑶𝑵𝑬"
𝐓𝐉 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐬 (𝐓𝐉 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐦𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧𝐬) is a professional event agency that includes experts in the event-organizing market in Vietnam, Korea, and ASEAN countries. We provide unlimited types of events from Music concerts, Fan meetings, and Culture festivals to Corporate events, Internal company events, Golf tournaments, MICE events, and Exhibitions.
𝐓𝐉 𝐂𝐨𝐦𝐬 provides unlimited package services including such as Event organizing, Event planning, Event production, Manpower, PR marketing, Design 2D/3D, VIP protocols, Interpreter agency, etc.
Sports events - Golf competitions/billiards competitions/company sports events: dynamic and challenging
⭐ 𝐅𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐮𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐣𝐞𝐜𝐭𝐬:
➢ 2024 BAEKHYUN [Lonsdaleite] IN HO CHI MINH
➢ SUPER JUNIOR-L.S.S. THE SHOW : Th3ee Guys in HO CHI MINH
➢FreenBecky 1st Fan Meeting in Vietnam
➢CHILDREN ART EXHIBITION 2024: BEYOND BARRIERS
➢ WOW K-Music Festival 2023
➢ Winner [CROSS] Tour in HCM
➢ Super Show 9 in HCM with Super Junior
➢ HCMC - Gyeongsangbuk-do Culture and Tourism Festival
➢ Korean Vietnam Partnership - Fair with LG
➢ Korean President visits Samsung Electronics R&D Center
➢ Vietnam Food Expo with Lotte Wellfood
"𝐄𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐲 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧𝐭 𝐢𝐬 𝐚 𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐲, 𝐚 𝐬𝐩𝐞𝐜𝐢𝐚𝐥 𝐣𝐨𝐮𝐫𝐧𝐞𝐲. 𝐖𝐞 𝐚𝐥𝐰𝐚𝐲𝐬 𝐛𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐯𝐞 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 𝐬𝐡𝐨𝐫𝐭𝐥𝐲 𝐲𝐨𝐮 𝐰𝐢𝐥𝐥 𝐛𝐞 𝐚 𝐩𝐚𝐫𝐭 𝐨𝐟 𝐨𝐮𝐫 𝐬𝐭𝐨𝐫𝐢𝐞𝐬."
Improving profitability for small businessBen Wann
In this comprehensive presentation, we will explore strategies and practical tips for enhancing profitability in small businesses. Tailored to meet the unique challenges faced by small enterprises, this session covers various aspects that directly impact the bottom line. Attendees will learn how to optimize operational efficiency, manage expenses, and increase revenue through innovative marketing and customer engagement techniques.
Putting the SPARK into Virtual Training.pptxCynthia Clay
This 60-minute webinar, sponsored by Adobe, was delivered for the Training Mag Network. It explored the five elements of SPARK: Storytelling, Purpose, Action, Relationships, and Kudos. Knowing how to tell a well-structured story is key to building long-term memory. Stating a clear purpose that doesn't take away from the discovery learning process is critical. Ensuring that people move from theory to practical application is imperative. Creating strong social learning is the key to commitment and engagement. Validating and affirming participants' comments is the way to create a positive learning environment.
Affordable Stationery Printing Services in Jaipur | Navpack n PrintNavpack & Print
Looking for professional printing services in Jaipur? Navpack n Print offers high-quality and affordable stationery printing for all your business needs. Stand out with custom stationery designs and fast turnaround times. Contact us today for a quote!
Discover the innovative and creative projects that highlight my journey throu...dylandmeas
Discover the innovative and creative projects that highlight my journey through Full Sail University. Below, you’ll find a collection of my work showcasing my skills and expertise in digital marketing, event planning, and media production.
Premium MEAN Stack Development Solutions for Modern BusinessesSynapseIndia
Stay ahead of the curve with our premium MEAN Stack Development Solutions. Our expert developers utilize MongoDB, Express.js, AngularJS, and Node.js to create modern and responsive web applications. Trust us for cutting-edge solutions that drive your business growth and success.
Know more: https://www.synapseindia.com/technology/mean-stack-development-company.html
Enterprise Excellence is Inclusive Excellence.pdfKaiNexus
Enterprise excellence and inclusive excellence are closely linked, and real-world challenges have shown that both are essential to the success of any organization. To achieve enterprise excellence, organizations must focus on improving their operations and processes while creating an inclusive environment that engages everyone. In this interactive session, the facilitator will highlight commonly established business practices and how they limit our ability to engage everyone every day. More importantly, though, participants will likely gain increased awareness of what we can do differently to maximize enterprise excellence through deliberate inclusion.
What is Enterprise Excellence?
Enterprise Excellence is a holistic approach that's aimed at achieving world-class performance across all aspects of the organization.
What might I learn?
A way to engage all in creating Inclusive Excellence. Lessons from the US military and their parallels to the story of Harry Potter. How belt systems and CI teams can destroy inclusive practices. How leadership language invites people to the party. There are three things leaders can do to engage everyone every day: maximizing psychological safety to create environments where folks learn, contribute, and challenge the status quo.
Who might benefit? Anyone and everyone leading folks from the shop floor to top floor.
Dr. William Harvey is a seasoned Operations Leader with extensive experience in chemical processing, manufacturing, and operations management. At Michelman, he currently oversees multiple sites, leading teams in strategic planning and coaching/practicing continuous improvement. William is set to start his eighth year of teaching at the University of Cincinnati where he teaches marketing, finance, and management. William holds various certifications in change management, quality, leadership, operational excellence, team building, and DiSC, among others.
An introduction to the cryptocurrency investment platform Binance Savings.Any kyc Account
Learn how to use Binance Savings to expand your bitcoin holdings. Discover how to maximize your earnings on one of the most reliable cryptocurrency exchange platforms, as well as how to earn interest on your cryptocurrency holdings and the various savings choices available.
2. • In telecommunications and computer networking, a
communication channel, or channel, refers either to a physical
transmission medium such as a wire, or to a logical connection
over a multiplexed medium such as a radio channel.
• A channel is used to convey an information signal, for example
a digital bit stream, from one or several senders (or
transmitters) to one or several receivers.
• A channel has a certain capacity for transmitting information,
often measured by its bandwidth in Hz or its data rate in bits
per second
3. Wired
• Two-Wire Open Line
• Coaxial Cable
• Twisted Pair Line
• Fiber Optics
Wireless
• Microwave Communication
• Radio
• Satellite
4. • Insulated Wire and open to free space
• Signal is applied to one wire and other one is for ground
reference
• it is used for connecting modem to computer
Bandwidth and capacity supported by two-wire open line:
• Bandwidth of two-wire open line is dependent on the material
of wire and cross sectional area of wire.
• If we know the bandwidth of this wire than capacity can be
calculated by using Shannon formula or Nyquist formula
Drawbacks:
• It is highly effected by Electromagnetic Radiations
5. • Coaxial cable, or coax, has an
inner conductor surrounded by a
flexible, tubular insulating layer,
surrounded by a tubular conducting
shield.
Bandwidth and capacity supported
by Coaxial cable:
• Both 10BASE2 and 10BASE5
coaxial Ethernet cables support
transfer speeds of up to 10
Megabits per second.
• For the purposes of transmitting
analog or digital channels - is that it
has a capacity of at least 900 MHZ.
That would equate to 150 analog
channels, or to 150 to 600 digital
channels.
A: outer plastic sheath
B: woven copper shield
C: inner dielectric insulator
D: copper core
6. Common types of coaxial cable include RG-6, RG-8, RG-58, and
RG-59. RG-6 is one of the most common, found in household and
business applications such as cable television connections. RG-59 is
considered to be the predecessor to RG-6. RG-8 cable is used
mainly for radio transmissions such as CB radio while RG-58 is
found in Ethernet network applications.
7. • Pairs of wires twisted together
• It is the most common medium
used for communication over a
large distance
• It is used for internet and
television connections
• Extensively being used in LAN
Connections
8. • UTP cable is widely used in 100 Mbps and 1 Gbps
networks. In order to guarantee the performance of the
cable, standards have been created such as CAT 5e and
CAT 6. A 'Cat 5e' UTP cable is sufficient for bandwidths
up to 1 Gbps for reasonable run lengths. For networks
needing to run up to 10 Gbps then a Cat 6 cable should
be used. Of course, this is more expensive so cable
selection should be based on what bandwidth is actually
required.
9. Shielded Twisted Pair Cable
• Covered with a foil shield to reduce
electromagnetic interference
• Better in performance than UTP cable
but more expensive than UTP cable
Unshielded twisted Pair Cable
• Does Not Include any extra sheilding
around the wire pairs
• Used for ordinary phone lines and local
area networks
• Less Expensive and easy to work
• Support shorter distance
10. • Optical fiber consists of a core and a
cladding layer, selected for total internal
reflection due to the difference in the
refractive index between the two. In
practical fibers, the cladding is usually
coated with a layer of acrylate polymer
or polyimide. This coating protects the
fiber from damage but does not
contribute to its optical waveguide
properties.
• An optical fiber is a thin (2 to 125µm),
flexible medium capable of guiding an
optical ray.
11. • Because the effect of dispersion increases with the
length of the fiber, a fiber transmission system is often
characterized by its bandwidth–distance product, usually
expressed in units of MHz·km. This value is a product of
bandwidth and distance because there is a tradeoff
between the bandwidth of the signal and the distance it
can be carried. For example, a common multi-mode fiber
with bandwidth–distance product of 500 MHz·km could
carry a 500 MHz signal for 1 km or a 1000 MHz signal for
0.5 km.
12. • Microwave radio transmission is commonly used in point-
to-point communication systems on the surface of the
Earth, in satellite communications, and in deep space
radio communications. Other parts of the microwave
radio band are used for radars, radio navigation systems,
sensor systems, and radio astronomy.
13. Wireless transmission of information
• One-way (e.g. television
broadcasting) and two-way
telecommunication using
communications satellite
• Terrestrial microwave radio
broadcasting relay links in
telecommunications networks
including e.g. backbone or backhaul
carriers in cellular networks linking
BTS-BSC and BSC-MSC.
Wireless transmission of power
• Proposed systems e.g. for
connecting solar power collecting
satellites to terrestrial power grids Relay towers on Frazier
Mountain, Southern California
14. • Microwave transmission refers to the technology of
transmitting information or energy by the use of radio
waves whose wavelengths are conveniently measured in
small numbers of centimeter; these are called
microwaves. This part of the radio spectrum ranges
across frequencies of roughly 1 GHz to 30 GHz. These
correspond to wavelengths from 30 centimeters down to
1.0 cm.
15. • Radio is the transmission of signals through free space by
electromagnetic waves with frequencies significantly below
visible light, in the radio frequency range, from about 3 kHz to
300 GHz. These waves are called radio waves.
Electromagnetic radiation travels by means of oscillating
electromagnetic fields that pass through the air and the
vacuum of space.
• Information, such as sound, is carried by systematically
changing (modulating) some property of the radiated waves,
such as their amplitude, frequency, phase, or pulse width.
When radio waves strike an electrical conductor, the oscillating
fields induce an alternating current in the conductor. The
information in the waves can be extracted and transformed
back into its original form.
16.
17. • In satellite communication, signal transferring between the
sender and receiver is done with the help of satellite. In
this process, the signal which is basically a beam of
modulated microwaves is sent towards the satellite. Then
the satellite amplifies the signal and sent it back to the
receiver’s antenna present on the earth’s surface. So, all
the signal transferring is happening in space. Thus this
type of communication is known as space communication.
• Two satellites which are commonly used in satellite
communication are Active and passive satellites.
18.
19. • Bandwidth of particular channel depends on the
conducting material and cross sectional area of the
medium used for transmission.
• In electrical engineering, computer science and
information theory, channel capacity is the tightest upper
bound on the amount of information that can be reliably
transmitted over a communications channel.
20. • An application of the channel capacity concept to an
additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel with B
Hz bandwidth and signal-to-noise ratio S/N is the
Shannon–Hartley theorem:
• C is measured in bits per second
• W is Bandwidth of Channel
• SNR is Signal to Noise Ratio
SNR = 10 log10(S/N)
Higher SNR leads to better channel capacity
21. • if the rate of signal transmission is 2B, then a signal with
frequencies no greater than B is sufficient to carry the signal
rate.
• Given bandwidth B, highest signal rate is 2B.
• Why is there such a limitation?
• due to intersymbol interference, such as is produced by delay distortion.
• Given binary signal (two voltage levels), the maximum data
rate supported by B Hz is 2B bps.
• One signal represents one bit
22. • Signals with more than two levels can be used, i.e., each signal
element can represent more than one bit.
• E.g., if a signal has 4 different levels, then a signal can be used to
represents two bits: 00, 01, 10, 11
• With multilevel signalling, the Nyquist formula becomes:
• C = 2B log2M
• M is the number of discrete signal levels, B is the given bandwidth, C is
the channel capacity in bps.
• How large can M be?
• The receiver must distinguish one of M possible signal elements.
• Noise and other impairments on the transmission line will limit the practical
value of M.
• Nyquist’s formula indicates that, if all other things are equal,
doubling the bandwidth doubles the data rate.
23. We assume
F1=0Hz and F2=20 kHz
so
B= F2-F1=20000 Hz
By Nyquist formula:
C = 2*20000* log2 (16)
C = 2*20000* log10 (16) / log10 (2)
C = 160 000 bps
24. • Noise Effects Leading to :
1. Higher the data rate of the signal, the greater the effective BW it
requires.
2. The greater the BW of the tx system, the higher is the data rate
that can be transmitted over the system.
3. With the introduction of levels what we are trying to do is to
increase the number of information pieces that travel in one
signaling element.
25. 4. For a given BW, the data rate can be increased by increasing the
number of signal elements. However this places an additional
burden on the receiver since now it has to discern many possible
amplitude values.
5. The channel capacity is the maximum rate at which data can be
transmitted over a gives communication path and with presence
of noise the channel capacity is highly affected in term of data
rate and the data rate capacity may decrease in channel in
presence of noise.
6. With noise the ability of the receiver to recognize many levels
becomes low
26. • Faster data rate shortens each bit, so burst of noise affects more
bits
• The key parameter is the SNR: Signal-to-Noise Ratio, which is the
ratio of the power in a signal to the power contained in the noise
• C = B log2(1+SNR) in bps - maximum data rate
• The wider the bandwidth, the more noise is admitted to the
system. Thus, as B increases, SNR decreases.
• Lower S/N leads to higher bit error rates thus reducing the
effective data rate.
• Noise targets multilevel signalling more
• Now according to SNR, if our noise is greater in a channel
corresponds to low SNR which leads to weak signal.