“These are the naturally Organic compounds, insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents (alcohol, ether, etc.), which are potentially related to fatty acids & utilized by living cells."
Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds.
They are esters of fatty acids. Lipids occur widely in plants and animals. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, and related compounds.
Lipids are a family of organic compounds, composed of fats and oils. These molecules yield high energy and are responsible for different functions within the human body.
“These are the naturally Organic compounds, insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents (alcohol, ether, etc.), which are potentially related to fatty acids & utilized by living cells."
Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds.
They are esters of fatty acids. Lipids occur widely in plants and animals. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, and related compounds.
Lipids are a family of organic compounds, composed of fats and oils. These molecules yield high energy and are responsible for different functions within the human body.
Lipids Chemistry Structure & Function (More Detailed)hafizayyub
This presentation is for Medical students. It is more detailed explanation of Lipids including types and medical importance. It is made by Drs Charles Stephen and Dr Ayyub Patel
THIS SLIDESHARE CONTAINS THE DESCRIPTION RELATED TO TOPIC LIPIDS FROM PHARMACOGNOSY OF CLASS B.PHARM 4TH SEM. IT IS PREPARED BY SAGAR DHANDAY STUDENT OF B.PHARM. 2ND YEAR (2019 BATCH) IPS, KUK FOR THE EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES.
Lipids are organic compounds formed mainly from alcohol and fatty acids combined together by ester
Lipids are insoluble in water, but soluble in fat or organic solvents (ether, chloroform, benzene, acetone).
Lipids include fats, oils, waxes and related compounds.
They are widely distributed in nature both in plants and in animals.
Lipids Chemistry Structure & Function (More Detailed)hafizayyub
This presentation is for Medical students. It is more detailed explanation of Lipids including types and medical importance. It is made by Drs Charles Stephen and Dr Ayyub Patel
THIS SLIDESHARE CONTAINS THE DESCRIPTION RELATED TO TOPIC LIPIDS FROM PHARMACOGNOSY OF CLASS B.PHARM 4TH SEM. IT IS PREPARED BY SAGAR DHANDAY STUDENT OF B.PHARM. 2ND YEAR (2019 BATCH) IPS, KUK FOR THE EDUCATIONAL PURPOSES.
Lipids are organic compounds formed mainly from alcohol and fatty acids combined together by ester
Lipids are insoluble in water, but soluble in fat or organic solvents (ether, chloroform, benzene, acetone).
Lipids include fats, oils, waxes and related compounds.
They are widely distributed in nature both in plants and in animals.
"Making the Leap: From Twinning to Partnership to Success With China" Orla Fl...Asia Matters
Orla Flynn of Cork Institute of Technology gave the speech at the Cork China Business Summit in Cork, 13 July as part of Asia Business Week Ireland 2015
H.E. Arif Havas Oegroseno, Indonesia - Asia Business Week DublinAsia Matters
“Indonesia - the Economic Giant of ASEAN” H.E. Arif Havas Oegroseno, Ambassador of the Republic of Indonesia to the European Union, speaking on June 6 at the Fourth EU Asia Top Economist Round Table during Asia Business Week Dublin 2014
"Working in True Partnership with China to Educate Globally Competent Graduat...Asia Matters
BDIC was established in 2011 with a particular focus on the formation of graduates with the creative, innovation and entrepreneurial skills to thrive in an increasingly globalised knowledge- and technology-intensive society.
Shifts in the Japanese Economy and the Potential Impact on EU Japan Investmen...Asia Matters
Philippe Avril, Vice-Chairman, International Bankers Association of Japan; Chief Country Officer, BNP Paribas Japan Group; CEO and Representative Director, BNP Paribas Securities (Japan) Limited speaks at the Fifth EU Asia Top Economist Round Table, talks about recent shifts in the Japanese Economy, examining Japanese Financial Markets; Business Environment: Financial Regulations; Increase in cross-border flows.
"Talent for Innovation: The Role of Universities." Ned CostelloAsia Matters
Ned Costello of Irish Universities Association gives the speech at the Asia Ireland Higher Education and Global Talent Forum in Dublin, 9 July as part of Asia Business Week Ireland 2015
Fatty acids are obtained from the hydrolysis of fats.
Fatty acids that occur in natural fats usually contain an even number of carbon atoms (due to synthesis from 2-carbon units) and are straight chain derivatives.
The chain may be saturated (containing no double bonds) or unsaturated (containing one or more double bonds).
Fatty acids are the building blocks of the fat in our bodies and in the food we eat. During digestion, the body breaks down fats into fatty acids, which can then be absorbed into the blood. Fatty acid molecules are usually joined together in groups of three, forming a molecule called a triglyceride.
Lipids structure, classification, functions and propertiesKambhampatiChinmayi
This presentation would provide a better understanding of the basics required to get a grip on lipids. Hope it is useful. any suggestions would be humbly accepted. Thank you.
Chemistry of carbohydrates polysaccharides part 3 B heteroglycansRavi Kiran
Chemistry of carbohydrates polysaccharides part 3 B heteroglycans. To teach Ist year medical students.
Chemistry of carbohydrates Part-1 Monosaccharides
Part-2 Disaccharides
Part -3A Homoglycans
Part-3B Heteroglycans
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Explore natural remedies for syphilis treatment in Singapore. Discover alternative therapies, herbal remedies, and lifestyle changes that may complement conventional treatments. Learn about holistic approaches to managing syphilis symptoms and supporting overall health.
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Tom Selleck Health: A Comprehensive Look at the Iconic Actor’s Wellness Journeygreendigital
Tom Selleck, an enduring figure in Hollywood. has captivated audiences for decades with his rugged charm, iconic moustache. and memorable roles in television and film. From his breakout role as Thomas Magnum in Magnum P.I. to his current portrayal of Frank Reagan in Blue Bloods. Selleck's career has spanned over 50 years. But beyond his professional achievements. fans have often been curious about Tom Selleck Health. especially as he has aged in the public eye.
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Introduction
Many have been interested in Tom Selleck health. not only because of his enduring presence on screen but also because of the challenges. and lifestyle choices he has faced and made over the years. This article delves into the various aspects of Tom Selleck health. exploring his fitness regimen, diet, mental health. and the challenges he has encountered as he ages. We'll look at how he maintains his well-being. the health issues he has faced, and his approach to ageing .
Early Life and Career
Childhood and Athletic Beginnings
Tom Selleck was born on January 29, 1945, in Detroit, Michigan, and grew up in Sherman Oaks, California. From an early age, he was involved in sports, particularly basketball. which played a significant role in his physical development. His athletic pursuits continued into college. where he attended the University of Southern California (USC) on a basketball scholarship. This early involvement in sports laid a strong foundation for his physical health and disciplined lifestyle.
Transition to Acting
Selleck's transition from an athlete to an actor came with its physical demands. His first significant role in "Magnum P.I." required him to perform various stunts and maintain a fit appearance. This role, which he played from 1980 to 1988. necessitated a rigorous fitness routine to meet the show's demands. setting the stage for his long-term commitment to health and wellness.
Fitness Regimen
Workout Routine
Tom Selleck health and fitness regimen has evolved. adapting to his changing roles and age. During his "Magnum, P.I." days. Selleck's workouts were intense and focused on building and maintaining muscle mass. His routine included weightlifting, cardiovascular exercises. and specific training for the stunts he performed on the show.
Selleck adjusted his fitness routine as he aged to suit his body's needs. Today, his workouts focus on maintaining flexibility, strength, and cardiovascular health. He incorporates low-impact exercises such as swimming, walking, and light weightlifting. This balanced approach helps him stay fit without putting undue strain on his joints and muscles.
Importance of Flexibility and Mobility
In recent years, Selleck has emphasized the importance of flexibility and mobility in his fitness regimen. Understanding the natural decline in muscle mass and joint flexibility with age. he includes stretching and yoga in his routine. These practices help prevent injuries, improve posture, and maintain mobilit
Prix Galien International 2024 Forum ProgramLevi Shapiro
June 20, 2024, Prix Galien International and Jerusalem Ethics Forum in ROME. Detailed agenda including panels:
- ADVANCES IN CARDIOLOGY: A NEW PARADIGM IS COMING
- WOMEN’S HEALTH: FERTILITY PRESERVATION
- WHAT’S NEW IN THE TREATMENT OF INFECTIOUS,
ONCOLOGICAL AND INFLAMMATORY SKIN DISEASES?
- ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND ETHICS
- GENE THERAPY
- BEYOND BORDERS: GLOBAL INITIATIVES FOR DEMOCRATIZING LIFE SCIENCE TECHNOLOGIES AND PROMOTING ACCESS TO HEALTHCARE
- ETHICAL CHALLENGES IN LIFE SCIENCES
- Prix Galien International Awards Ceremony
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
Pulmonary Thromboembolism - etilogy, types, medical- Surgical and nursing man...VarunMahajani
Disruption of blood supply to lung alveoli due to blockage of one or more pulmonary blood vessels is called as Pulmonary thromboembolism. In this presentation we will discuss its causes, types and its management in depth.
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4. Definition of lipids
• Lipids may be defined as compounds which are relatively insoluble in
water, but freely soluble in non-polar organic solvents, such as
benzene, chloroform, ether, hot alcohol, acetone, etc.
• Lipids constitute a heterogeneous group of compounds of
biochemical importance.
5. The functions of lipids are summarized
1. Storage form of energy (triacylglycerol).
2. Structural components of biomembranes (phospholipids and
cholesterol).
3. Metabolic regulators (steroid hormones and prostaglandins).
4. Act as surfactants, detergents and emulsifying agents (amphipathic
lipids).
5. Act as electric insulators in neurons.
6. The functions of lipids are summarized
6. Provide insulation against changes in external temperature
(subcutaneous fat).
7. Give shape and contour to the body.
8. Protect internal organs by providing a cushioning effect (pads of
fat).
9. Help in absorption of fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E and K).
10. Improve taste and palatability of food.
7. The clinical applications
1. Excessive fat deposits cause obesity. Truncal obesity is a risk factor
for heart attack.
2. Abnormality in cholesterol and lipoprotein metabolism leads to
atherosclerosis and cardiovascular diseases.
3. In diabetes mellitus, the metabolisms of fatty acids and lipoproteins
are deranged, leading to ketosis.
8. CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
Based on the chemical nature, lipids are classified as:
1. Simple lipids
2. Compound lipids
3. Derived lipids
4. Lipids complexed to other compounds
9. CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
Based on the chemical nature
1. Simple lipids:
• They are esters of fatty acids with glycerol or other higher
alcohols.
a. Triacylglycerol or Triglycerides or neutral fat
b. Waxes
10. CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
Based on the chemical nature
2. Compound lipids
• They are fatty acids esterified with alcohol; but in addition they
contain other groups. Depending on these extra groups, they are
sub classified.
a. Phospholipids, containing phosphoric acid.
b. Non-phosphorylated lipids
11. CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
Based on the chemical nature
3. Derived lipids
• They are compounds, which are derived from lipids or precursors of
lipids.
e.g. fatty acids, steroids – cholesterol, prostaglandins,
leukotrienes, terpenes, dolichols, etc.
12. CLASSIFICATION OF LIPIDS
Based on the chemical nature
4. Lipids complexed to other compounds
Proteolipids and lipoproteins
18. FATTY ACIDS
• Fatty acids, are included in the group of derived lipids.
• It is the most common component of lipids in the body.
• They are generally found in ester linkage in different classes of lipids.
• In the human body, free fatty acids are formed only during
metabolism.
19. FATTY ACIDS
• Fatty acids are aliphatic carboxylic acids and have the general
formula, R—CO—OH, where COOH (carboxylic group) represents the
functional group.
• Depending on the R group (the hydrocarbon chain), the physical
properties of fatty acids may vary.
23. SATURATED FATTY ACIDS
1. They have the general formula CH3-(CH2)n-COOH.
• For example,
a. Acetic acid CH3—COOH
b. Butyric acid CH3(CH2)2—COOH
c. Palmitic acid CH3—(CH2)14—COOH
d. Stearic acid CH3—(CH2)16—COOH
24. SATURATED FATTY ACIDS
2. They are named by adding the suffix ‘anoic' after the hydrocarbon.
3. The two carbon acetic acid and 4 carbon butyric acid are important
metabolic intermediates.
4. The C16 (palmitic acid) and C18 (stearic acid) are most abundant in
body fat.
25. SATURATED FATTY ACIDS
5. Each animal species will have characteristic pattern of fatty acid
composition. Thus, human body fat contains 50% oleic acid, 25%
palmitic acid, 10% linoleic and 5% stearic acid.
6. The carbon atoms of fatty acids are numbered as C1, C2, etc.
starting from the COOH group. Or, starting from the methyl end, the
carbon atoms may be numbered as omega (w)—1,2,3, etc.
26. UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
• They are named by adding the suffix ‘enoic' after the systematic
name.
• They are similar to saturated fatty acids in the reaction of the
carboxylic group but also show properties due to presence of the
double bond.
27. UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
• Unsaturated fatty acids exhibit geometrical isomerism at the double
bonds.
• All the naturally occurring fatty acids have the cis configuration.
However, in the body during metabolism trans fatty acids are formed.
Cis and trans forms of fatty acid
28. UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
• The polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) exist in cis configuration in
naturally occurring lipids.
Clinical significance of PUFA is shown in Box.
30. UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
• Many clinical and epidemiologic studies have shown positive roles for
omega-3 fatty acids in infant development; cancer; cardiovascular
diseases; and more recently, in various mental illnesses, including
depression, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and dementia.
omega-3 fatty acids
31. UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
• These fatty acids are known to have pleiotropic effects, including
effects against inflammation, platelet aggregation, hypertension, and
hyperlipidemia.
• These beneficial effects may be mediated through several distinct
mechanisms, including alterations in cell membrane composition and
function, gene expression, or eicosanoid production.
omega-3 fatty acids
32. TRANS FATTY ACIDS (TFA)
• They are present in dairy products and in hydrogenated edible oils.
They are generally considered to be injurious to health.
• However, they are used in food industry as they increase the shelf life
of the fried food.
• Oils containing PUFA also have high content of TFA. Fast food
preparations have a high TFA content.
33. TRANS FATTY ACIDS (TFA)
• Trans fatty acids adversely affects multiple risk factors for chronic
diseases, including composition of blood lipids and lipoproteins,
systemic inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, insulin resistance,
diabetes and adiposity.
34. TRANS FATTY ACIDS (TFA)
• It is high in processed foods and bakery products, where partially
hydrogenated vegetable oils are used for cooking.
35. Properties of Fatty Acids
• Hydrogenation
• Halogenation
• Melting Point
• Salt Formation
• Ester Formation
• Oxidation of Fatty Acids
36. Properties of Fatty Acids
• Hydrogenation
• Unsaturated fatty acids may be converted to the corresponding
saturated fatty acids by hydrogenation of the double bond.
• Hydrogenation of oils can lead to solidification and saturation, e.g.
Vanaspathi.
37. Properties of Fatty Acids
• Halogenation
• When treated with halogens under mild conditions, the unsaturated
fatty acids can take up two halogen atoms, at each double bond to
form the halogenated derivative of the fatty acid.
For example,
Oleic acid + I2 → Di-iodo oleic acid
38. Properties of Fatty Acids
• Halogenation
• The number of halogen atoms taken up will depend on the number of
double bonds and is an index of the degree of unsaturation.
39. Properties of Fatty Acids
• Melting Point
• The short and medium chain fatty acids are liquids, whereas long
chain fatty acids are solids at 25oC.
• The solubility in water decreases, while melting and boiling points
increase with increase in chain length.
40. Properties of Fatty Acids
• Melting Point
• The unsaturated fatty acids have lower melting point compared to
saturated fatty acids with the same chain length.
• For example, stearic acid (C18 fatty acid, no double bond) has the
melting point 69oC, oleic acid (C18, 1 double bond) has 13oC; linoleic
acid (C18, 2 double bonds) has –5oC and linolenic (C18, 3 double
bonds) has –10oC.
41. Properties of Fatty Acids
• Salt Formation
Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids form salts with alkali.
CH3—COOH + NaOH → CH3—COONa + H2O
Sodium and potassium salts of long chain fatty acids are called soaps.
Calcium and magnesium soaps are insoluble. Calcium soaps are used in
grease.
42. Properties of Fatty Acids
• Salt Formation
Alkyl sulfate (R—CH2—O—SO2—ONa) and alkyl sulfonate
(R—CH2—SO2—O—Na) are not precipitated by hard water and are
used as detergents.
43. Properties of Fatty Acids
• Ester Formation
• Both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids form esters with alcohols,
especially with glycerol. Fatty acids can form mono-, di- or tri- esters
with alcohol groups of glycerol.
Triacylglycerol (TAG) (Triglyceride)
44. Properties of Fatty Acids
• Ester Formation
• Triglycerides or triacylglycerols are also known as neutral fat.
• Glycerol + fatty acid → Monoacylglycerol
• Monoglyceride + fatty acid → Diacylglycerol
• Diglyceride + fatty acid → Triglyceride or triacylglycerol
45. Properties of Fatty Acids
• Oxidation of Fatty Acids
• All fatty acids undergo oxidation in the body to give energy. Beta-
oxidation is the major process by which acids are oxidized. However,
the unsaturated fatty acids can undergo auto-oxidation, due to the
presence of the highly reactive double bonds and a variety of
products are formed.
46. NEUTRAL FATS
• Neutral fats are also called as triacylglycerols (TAG) or triglycerides
(TG). These are esters of the trihydric alcohol, glycerol with fatty
acids.
Triacylglycerol (TAG) (Triglyceride)
47. NEUTRAL FATS
• Nomenclature of Carbon Atoms
• As per International Union of Biochemistry (IUB) the correct
designations are monoacylglycerol, diacylglycerol and triacylglycerol.
But the old terminology of monoglyceride, diglyceride and triglyceride
are still popular, especially among clinical laboratory workers.
48. NEUTRAL FATS
• Nomenclature of Carbon Atoms
• The carbon atoms of glycerol are designated as α, β and a' or as 1, 2,
3 as shown, where R represents the side chain of fatty acids. Enzymes
can distinguish between 1st and 3rd carbon atoms.
Triacylglycerol (TAG) (Triglyceride)
49. NEUTRAL FATS
• Mixed Triglycerides
1. Naturally occurring fats and oils are mixtures of triglycerides.
2. If all the three hydroxyl groups of the glycerol are esterified to the
same fatty acid, a simple triacylglycerol is formed, e.g. Tripalmitin,
Triolein, etc.
50. NEUTRAL FATS
Mixed Triglycerides
3. A mixed triglycerol is formed, when different fatty acids are
esterified to the hydroxyl groups of glycerol.
4. Generally, two hydroxyl groups are esterified to similar fatty acid
and the third with a different one, e.g. 1, 3-dipalmitoyl-2-olein; 1-
palmitoyl-2, 3-distearin, etc. When a PUFA is present, it is
commonly esterified to the 2nd or b-carbon atom.
51. Physical Properties of Triacylglycerols
1. They are hydrophobic and insoluble in water.
2. Oils are liquids at 20oC; they are triacylglycerols, which contain a
higher proportion of unsaturated fatty acids or short chain
triglycerides. Oils are generally of plant origin.
3. Fats are solids at room temperature and contain mainly saturated
long chain fatty acids. Fats are mainly of animal origin.
52. Physical Properties of Triacylglycerols
4. When the constituent fatty acids have a higher chain length and are
predominantly saturated, ‘hard fat' is formed, e.g. pig fat.
5. Fats containing medium chain triacylglycerols or unsaturated fatty
acids are soft fats, e.g. butter, coconut oil. Coconut oil contains
mainly medium chain TAG, e.g. Lauric and Myristic acids.
53. Storage of Energy as Fat
• The triacylglycerols are the storage form of lipids in the adipose
tissue.
• In a 70 kg normal person, body stores contain about 11 kg of
triacylglycerol, which is roughly equivalent to 100,000 kcal.
54. Storage of Energy as Fat
• If the same calories were stored as hydrated glycogen, the total
weight of this alone would have been 65 kg! When stored as TAG,
water molecules are repelled and space requirement is minimal.
Excess fat in the body leads to obesity.
55. Hydrolysis of Triacylglycerols
• This occurs in the body during digestion of dietary fat and
mobilization of TAG from adipose tissue.
• Triacylglycerols in the body are hydrolyzed by enzymes, lipases which
are hydrolases.
56. Hydrolysis of Triacylglycerols
• Triacylglycerol is sequentially hydrolyzed to diacylglycerol and
monoacylglycerol and finally glycerol plus 3 fatty acids.
Hydrolysis of triglycerides
57. Saponification
• When triacylglycerols are hydrolyzed by alkali, the process is known
as saponification. The products are glycerol and soaps.
Saponification
58. Saponification
• Saponification number is defined as the number of milligrams of
potassium hydroxide required to saponify one gram of fat.
• It is an indication of the molecular weight of the fat, and is inversely
proportional to it. Human fat has a saponification number of 194–
198, butter has 210– 230 and coconut oil has 253–262.
59. Iodine Number
• Iodine number of a fat is defined as the number of grams of iodine
taken up by 100 grams of fat.
• It is an index of the degree of unsaturation and is directly
proportional to the content of unsaturated fatty acids.
60. Iodine Number
• Higher the iodine number, higher is the degree of unsaturation, e.g.
iodine number of butter is 28, and that of sunflower oil is 130.
61. Rancidity of Fat
• Fats and oils have a tendency to become rancid.
• The term rancidity refers to the appearance of an unpleasant smell
and taste for fats and oils.
62. Rancidity of Fat
• Hydrolytic rancidity is due to partial hydrolysis of the triacylglycerol
molecules due to traces of hydrolytic enzymes present in naturally
occurring fats and oils.
63. Rancidity of Fat
• Oxidative rancidity is the result of partial oxidation of unsaturated
fatty acids with resultant formation of epoxides and peroxides of
small molecular weight fatty acids by peroxides and free radicals.
• The same process, if it occurs in vivo will affect the integrity of
biomembranes, leading to cell death
64. Rancidity of Fat
• Many natural fats and oils may contain antioxidants (e.g. vitamin E),
which prevent the occurrence of oxidative rancidity.
• PUFA are more easily oxidized; so vegetable oils with a high content
of PUFA are usually preserved with addition of antioxidants.
65. Rancidity of Fat
• Repeated heating of oils would lead to the formation and
polymerization of cyclic hydrocarbons.
• These will impart an unpleasant taste and color to the oil.
• Coconut oil having medium chain saturated fatty acids will withstand
such polymerization.
66. Waxes
• They form the secretions of insects, leaves and fruits of plants, e.g.
Lanolin or wool fat, beeswax, whalesperm oil, etc.
• They are esters of higher fatty acids with higher monohydroxy
aliphatic alcohols and so have very long straight chains of 60–100
carbon atoms.
• They are used as the base for the preparation of cosmetics,
ointments, polishes, lubricants and candles.