This document discusses lipids and fatty acids. It defines lipids and outlines their classification. Lipids include fats, oils, waxes, phospholipids, glycolipids and sterols. Fatty acids are the building blocks of lipids and can be saturated or unsaturated. The structure and properties of fatty acids are described. Unsaturated fatty acids are important as essential fatty acids that must be obtained through diet. The document also discusses the composition of common oils and fats.
Lipids-Introduction, properties and functions.
Classification-Simple lipids, complex lipids and derived lipids.
Lipids contain fatty acid and alcohol.
Saturated and Unsaturated fatty acids. Nomenclature of fatty acids, Cis-trans isomerism, essential fatty acids
Simple lipids-Fats, waxes
Compound lipids-Structure, function with examples of Phospholipids, Glycolipids, sulpholipids and lipoproteins.
Derived lipids: Structure, types, and functions of steroids, terpenes and carotenoids.
Lipoproteins-classified into chylomicrons, very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), low density lipoproteins (LDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL) and their function.
Eicosanoids-prostanoids, leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs).
Functions of Eicosanoids
Lipids, micelles and liposomes.
briefly describe enzyme and coenzyme and its role in many orders. Consist of enzyme nomenclature, enzyme part: prosthetic group, metalions, cofactors, and secondary substrate. Describe inhibition action.
Polypeptides,peptides, types of peptides, structure of dipeptide, tripeptide...ShwetaMishra115
Descriptive notes on polypeptides
Polypeptides,peptides, types of peptides, structure of dipeptide, tripeptide and oligopeptide and different functions of peptide
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature.
They are commonly known as saccharides or sugars.
They are primarily composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
The name carbohydrate literally means “hydrates of carbon”.
Carbohydrates are widely distributed in nature in plants and animals.
The most important carbohydrate found in plants is starch.
It occurs abundantly in roots, tubers, vegetables and grains. The carbohydrate found in animals is glycogen.
It is a storage form of carbohydrate present in liver and muscles, which serves as important sources of energy for vital activities.
Lipids may be regarded as organic substances which is insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents (alcohol , ether etc.), Triacylglycerols (formerly triglycerides) are the esters of glycerol with fatty acids.
Lipids-Introduction, properties and functions.
Classification-Simple lipids, complex lipids and derived lipids.
Lipids contain fatty acid and alcohol.
Saturated and Unsaturated fatty acids. Nomenclature of fatty acids, Cis-trans isomerism, essential fatty acids
Simple lipids-Fats, waxes
Compound lipids-Structure, function with examples of Phospholipids, Glycolipids, sulpholipids and lipoproteins.
Derived lipids: Structure, types, and functions of steroids, terpenes and carotenoids.
Lipoproteins-classified into chylomicrons, very low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), low density lipoproteins (LDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL) and their function.
Eicosanoids-prostanoids, leukotrienes (LTs), and lipoxins (LXs).
Functions of Eicosanoids
Lipids, micelles and liposomes.
briefly describe enzyme and coenzyme and its role in many orders. Consist of enzyme nomenclature, enzyme part: prosthetic group, metalions, cofactors, and secondary substrate. Describe inhibition action.
Polypeptides,peptides, types of peptides, structure of dipeptide, tripeptide...ShwetaMishra115
Descriptive notes on polypeptides
Polypeptides,peptides, types of peptides, structure of dipeptide, tripeptide and oligopeptide and different functions of peptide
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature.
They are commonly known as saccharides or sugars.
They are primarily composed of the elements carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
The name carbohydrate literally means “hydrates of carbon”.
Carbohydrates are widely distributed in nature in plants and animals.
The most important carbohydrate found in plants is starch.
It occurs abundantly in roots, tubers, vegetables and grains. The carbohydrate found in animals is glycogen.
It is a storage form of carbohydrate present in liver and muscles, which serves as important sources of energy for vital activities.
Lipids may be regarded as organic substances which is insoluble in water, soluble in organic solvents (alcohol , ether etc.), Triacylglycerols (formerly triglycerides) are the esters of glycerol with fatty acids.
Fatty acids are obtained from the hydrolysis of fats.
Fatty acids that occur in natural fats usually contain an even number of carbon atoms (due to synthesis from 2-carbon units) and are straight chain derivatives.
The chain may be saturated (containing no double bonds) or unsaturated (containing one or more double bonds).
3. Lipids.pptx topic for bsn and allied health sciencesitxshanzee4892
Lipids topic for bsn and allied health sciencesLipids topic for bsn and allied health sciencesLipids topic for bsn and allied health sciencesLipids topic for bsn and allied health sciencesLipids topic for bsn and allied health sciences
Lipids structure, classification, functions and propertiesKambhampatiChinmayi
This presentation would provide a better understanding of the basics required to get a grip on lipids. Hope it is useful. any suggestions would be humbly accepted. Thank you.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
2. Lipids
• Heterogenous group of organic molecules including
fats, oils, steroids and related compounds which are
relatively insoluble in water and soluble in organic
solvents such as ether, chloroform, benzene, acetone
etc.
3. Bloor’s Criteria
Lipids are compounds having the following
characteristics:
Insoluble in water
Solubility in one or more organic solvents, such as
ether, chloroform, benzene, acetone etc.
Some relationship to the fatty acids as esters either
actual or potential
Possibility of utilization by living organisms
5. Simple lipids
Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols
• Fats and oils : Esters of fatty acids with glycerol
Oil is a liquid while fat is a solid at room temp
6. Waxes:
• Esters of fatty acids (usually long chain) with alcohols
other than glycerol.
• Example: Cetyl alcohol : is a fatty alcohol with the
formula CH3(CH2)15OH
7. Complex lipids
Esters of fatty acids with alcohols containing additional
groups such as phosphate, nitrogenous base
carbohydrate, protein
i. Phospholipids : Lipids containing, in addition to fatty
acids and an alcohol, a phosphoric acid residue. Usually
have nitrogen containing bases and other substituents,
Examples:
a. glycerophospholipids : the alcohol is glycerol eg;
lecithin, cephalin and
b. sphingophospholipids: the alcohol is sphingosine eg;
sphingomyelin
8. II) Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids) : Lipids containing a
fatty acid, sphingosine, and carbohydrate
Example: Cerebrosides, Gangliosides
III) Other complex lipids: Lipids such as sulfolipids ,
lipopolysaccharides , aminolipids, Lipoproteins
9. Precursor and derived lipids:
• Include - fatty acids, glycerol, steroids, other alcohols,
fatty aldehydes, and ketone bodies, hydrocarbons,
lipid-soluble vitamins, and hormones
• Acylglycerols (glycerides), cholesterol, and cholesteryl
esters are uncharged, so they are termed as neutral
lipids
10. Function of lipids
Storage form of energy (Triacylglycerol)
Constituents of membrane structure and regulate
the membrane permeability (phospholipids and
cholesterol)
Are important as cellular metabolic regulators
(steroid hormones and prostaglandins)
Act as surfactants, detergents & emulsifying agents
11. • Provide insulation against changes in external
temperature
• Protect the internal organs, serve as insulating
materials and give shape and smooth appearance to
the body
• Help in absorption of fat soluble vitamins.
12. • Improve taste & palatability of food
• Lipoproteins, which are complexes of lipids and
proteins are involved in the transport of lipids in the
blood and are also components of cell membrane
• Lipids present in myelinated nerves act as insulators
for propagation of depolarization wave
13. • A knowledge of lipid biochemistry is important in
understanding many current biomedical areas of
interest, eg;
– obesity
– Atherosclerosis
– Myocardial infarction (heart attack)
– role of various polyunsaturated fatty
acids in nutrition and health
14. Fatty Acids
Aliphatic carboxylic acids,
General formula, R-CO-OH
Depending on the R group (hydrocarbon chain), the
physical properties of fatty acid may vary
Occurrence: esterified & free (unesterified) form
Animal origin are much simpler in structure in
contrast of plant origin which often contain groups
like keto, hydroxy, cyclopentane rings
15. Classification of fatty acids
I. Depending on total number of carbon atoms
1. Even chain fatty acids:
having carbon atoms 2,4,6 & series
Example: Acetic acid (CH3COOH)
Butyric acid (C3H7COOH)
Caproic acid (C5H11COOH)
Palmitic acid (C15H31COOH)
2. Odd chain fatty acids:
having carbon atoms 3,5,7 etc
Seen in microbial cell walls & also present in milk
Example: Propanoic (C2H5COOH)
16. II. Depending on the length of hydrocarbon chain
• Short chain = 2-6 carbons
• Medium chain = 8-14 carbons
• Long chain = 16-22 carbons,
• Very long chain fatty acids: 24 & above carbons
17. Saturated fatty acids
Unsaturated fatty acids
Branched chain fatty acids (e.g. isovaleric acid)
Hydroxy fatty acids (e.g. cerebronic acid)
III. Depending on the nature of hydrocarbon
chain
18. • Contain single bond, no double bond
• General formula: CH3-(CH2)n-COOH
Example: acetic acid : CH3-COOH
butyric acid: CH3-(CH2)2-COOH
palmitic acid: CH3-(CH2)14-COOH
stearic acid: CH3-(CH2)16-COOH
Saturated Fatty Acid
19. Important metabolic intermediates: Acetic acid & butyric
acid
Most abundant in body fat: palmitic acid & stearic acid
Human body fat contains 50% oleic acid, 25% palmitic
acid, 10% linoleic acid & 5% stearic acid
Carbon atoms of fatty acids are numbered as
C1,C2,….starting from the COOH group
Starting from the methyl end, the carbon atoms may be
numbered as omega-1,2,3….
20. Unsaturated Fatty Acid
• contains one or more double bonds
• One double bond = monounsaturated fatty acid
• Two or more double bonds = poly- unsaturated
fatty acid
• Monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty
acids don’t stack compactly and are liquid at
room temperature
23. Nomenclature of Unsaturated Fatty Acids
COOH
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Number of Double Bonds
Position of Double Bonds
Carbon Chain Length
18:3 ( 9, 12, 15)
The most commonly occurring fatty acids have even number
of carbon atoms in an un-branched chain of12-24 carbons
24. General Patterns of Double Bonds
• The most common positions for double bonds are
Δ9, Δ12, and Δ15.
• The double bonds of polyunsaturated fatty acids are
separated by methyl group:
-CH=CH-CH2-CH=CH-
• In almost all the naturally occurring unsaturated
fatty acids, the double bonds are in Cis- configuration
25. • CIS: hydrogens on the carbons joined by a double
bond are on the same side = the carbon chain is bent
• TRANS: hydrogens on the carbons joined by a
double bond are on the opposite side = the carbon
chain is straighter
Two types of bond formation
26. Isomerism
Two types of isomers can occur in an unsaturated fatty acid
1. Geometrical isomers: cis and trans
Cis isomers have a curved configuration.
Trans isomers have a linear configuration.
Due to curve configuration cis unsaturated fatty acids have
a lower melting point as compared to there trans
counterpart.
Most of the natural unsaturated fatty acids have cis double
bonds
Example: Oleic acid & Elaidic acid [ C17H33COOH]
27. 2. Positional isomers:
• variation in the location of the double bond
along the unsaturated fatty acids chain produces
isomer of that compound
• Oleic acid have 15 different positional isomers
29. Essential fatty acids
The fatty acids that can not be synthesized by the
body, & therefore, should be supplied in the diet
is known as essential fatty acids
Chemically, they are polyunsaturated
Example:
- Linoleic acid (18:2,9,12)
- Linolenic acid (18:3,9,12,15)
- Arachidonic acid (20:4,5,8,11,14)
30. Function of EFA
Structural elements of tissue and gonads
Synthesis of prostaglandins and other compounds
Structural components of mitochondrial membrane
Effect on clotting time
Effect on fibrinolytic activity
Role of EFA in fatty liver
Role in vision
31. Properties of fatty acids
1. Hydrogenation
2. Halogenation
3. Melting point
4. Salt formation
5. Ester formation
6. Oxidation of fatty acids
32. Hydrogenation
• Unsaturated fatty acids may be converted to the
corresponding saturated fatty acids by
hydrogenation of double bonds
• Eg:
Linolenic Lenoleic Oleic stearic
• Hydrogenation of oils can lead to solidification and
saturation eg: Vanaspathi
+2H +2H +2H
33. Halogenation
• When treated with halogens under mild conditions,
the unsaturated fatty acids can take up two halogen
atoms, at each double bond to form the
halogenated derivative of the fatty acid
• Eg:
Oleic acid + I2 Di-iodo oleic acid
• The number of halogen atoms taken up will depend
on the number of double bonds and is an index of
the degree of unsaturation.
34. Melting point
• The short and medium chain fatty acids are liquids
where as long chain fatty acids are solids at 25oC
• The solubility in water decreases, while melting and
boiling points increase, with increase in chain
length
• The unsaturtaed fatty acids have lower melting
point compared with saturated fatty acids with the
same chain length
• Eg: stearic acid (C18, no double bond) has the
melting pont 69oC
- Oleic acid (c18, 1 double bond) has 13oC
- Lenoleic (C18, 2 double bond) has -5oC
- Lenolenic (C18, 3 double bond) has -10oC
35. Salt formation
• Saturated and unsaturated fatty acids form salts
with alkali
• Sodium and potassium salts of long chain fatty acids
are called soaps
• Calcium and magnesium soaps are insoluble and
Calcium soaps are used in grease
• Akyl sulfonate and akyl sulfate are used as
detergents
36. Ester formation
• Both saturated and unsaturated fatty acids form
esters with alcohols, especially with glycerol
• Fatty acids can form mono, di, or tri esters with
alcohol groups of glycerol
37. Oxidation of fatty acids
• All the fatty acids undergo oxidation in the body to
give energy
• Beta oxidation is the major process by which acids
are oxidized
• However, the unsaturated fatty acids can undergo
auto oxidation, due to the presence of the highly
reactive double bonds and a variety of products
Sphingosine (2-amino-4-trans-octadecene-1,3-diol) is an 18-carbon amino alcohol with an unsaturated hydrocarbon chain, which forms a primary part of sphingolipids, a class of cell membrane lipids that include sphingomyelin, an important phospholipid.
