- Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base (purine or pyrimidine), a pentose sugar (ribose or deoxyribose), and one or more phosphate groups. When a base combines with a sugar, a nucleoside is formed. The addition of phosphate groups produces nucleotides.
- The four bases found in nucleic acids are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and either thymine in DNA or uracil in RNA. These bases combine with either ribose or deoxyribose to form nucleosides like AMP, GMP, CMP, TMP, and UMP.
- Nucleotides are the monomers that make up nucleic acids DNA and RNA
This Presentation is made for S.Y.Bsc. Students. This presentation includes the structure of nucliec acids DNA, RNA and biological significance of nucliec acids.
Nucleic acids are biopolymers, or small biomolecules, essential to all known forms of life. They are composed of nucleotides, which are monomers made of three components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. If the sugar is a compound ribose, the polymer is RNA (ribonucleic acid); if the sugar is derived from ribose as deoxyribose, the polymer is DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid).
This Presentation is made for S.Y.Bsc. Students. This presentation includes the structure of nucliec acids DNA, RNA and biological significance of nucliec acids.
Nucleic acids are biopolymers, or small biomolecules, essential to all known forms of life. They are composed of nucleotides, which are monomers made of three components: a 5-carbon sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogenous base. If the sugar is a compound ribose, the polymer is RNA (ribonucleic acid); if the sugar is derived from ribose as deoxyribose, the polymer is DNA(deoxyribonucleic acid).
Nucleotide Biosynthesis involves 2 processes. one is Denovo synthesis and other is Salvage pathway. An outline of both the processes has given in this presentation.
These slides may be helpful for grabbing basic knowledge regarding Nucleic acids for the students of Microbiology, Biochemistry, Nursing, Agriculture, Veterinary,Pharmacy..etc
This is a continuation of the earlier slide with a name "Nucleotides". Please refer to the previous mentioned slide before moving to this slide for a better overall concept on nucleotides and nucleic acids.
This is a lecture slide for MBBS, BDS, paramedical as well as for those who are interested in molecular biology, molecular life sciences, biochemistry, medical biochemistry, general biochemistry etc.
For the more elucidated and connected information, try to refer to the nucleic acids slides.
Transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA).Transcription is carried out by an enzyme called RNA polymerase and a number of accessory proteins called transcription factors.
Marc coleman, Asia Business Week DublinAsia Matters
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Nucleotide Biosynthesis involves 2 processes. one is Denovo synthesis and other is Salvage pathway. An outline of both the processes has given in this presentation.
These slides may be helpful for grabbing basic knowledge regarding Nucleic acids for the students of Microbiology, Biochemistry, Nursing, Agriculture, Veterinary,Pharmacy..etc
This is a continuation of the earlier slide with a name "Nucleotides". Please refer to the previous mentioned slide before moving to this slide for a better overall concept on nucleotides and nucleic acids.
This is a lecture slide for MBBS, BDS, paramedical as well as for those who are interested in molecular biology, molecular life sciences, biochemistry, medical biochemistry, general biochemistry etc.
For the more elucidated and connected information, try to refer to the nucleic acids slides.
Transcription is the process by which the information in a strand of DNA is copied into a new molecule of messenger RNA (mRNA).Transcription is carried out by an enzyme called RNA polymerase and a number of accessory proteins called transcription factors.
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chemistry of nucleic acids,
history --> Discovered by JOHANN FRIEDRICH MIESCHER
central dogma of life
components of nucleic acids-->Nitrogenous base +pentose sugar +phosphate group.
structure of nucleotides --> purines and pyrimidens
minor bases in nucleic acids are 5-methylcytosine,N4-acetylcytosine, N6-methylsdenine, N6,N6-dimethyladenine, pseudouracil.
Biologically importanat Bases-->Hypoxanthine, Xanthine, uric acid.
Purines bases of plant --> caffeine,theophylline, theobromine
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The skin is divided into two parts: the superficial part, the
epidermis; and the deep part, the dermis (Fig. 1.4). The
epidermis is a stratified epithelium whose cells become flat
tened as they mature and rise to the surface. On the palms of
the hands and the soles of the feet, the epidermis is extremely
thick, to withstand the wear and tear that occurs in these
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composed of dense connective tissue containing many blood
vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves. It shows considerable
variation in thickness in different parts of the body, tending
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SKIN CREASES (Fig. 1.5). At these sites, the skin is thinner
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plate is the root of the nail (see Fig. 1.5). With the exception
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face of skin covered by the nail is the nail bed (see Fig. 1.5).
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STATEMENT OF NEED
Mantle cell lymphoma (MCL) is a rare, aggressive B-cell non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) accounting for 5% to 7% of all lymphomas. Its prognosis ranges from indolent disease that does not require treatment for years to very aggressive disease, which is associated with poor survival (Silkenstedt et al, 2021). Typically, MCL is diagnosed at advanced stage and in older patients who cannot tolerate intensive therapy (NCCN, 2022). Although recent advances have slightly increased remission rates, recurrence and relapse remain very common, leading to a median overall survival between 3 and 6 years (LLS, 2021). Though there are several effective options, progress is still needed towards establishing an accepted frontline approach for MCL (Castellino et al, 2022). Treatment selection and management of MCL are complicated by the heterogeneity of prognosis, advanced age and comorbidities of patients, and lack of an established standard approach for treatment, making it vital that clinicians be familiar with the latest research and advances in this area. In this activity chaired by Michael Wang, MD, Professor in the Department of Lymphoma & Myeloma at MD Anderson Cancer Center, expert faculty will discuss prognostic factors informing treatment, the promising results of recent trials in new therapeutic approaches, and the implications of treatment resistance in therapeutic selection for MCL.
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Hematology/oncology fellows, attending faculty, and other health care professionals involved in the treatment of patients with mantle cell lymphoma (MCL).
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- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
- Link to download the book free: https://nephrotube.blogspot.com/p/nephrotube-nephrology-books.html
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RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
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3. Chapter at a Glance
• The reader will be able to answer questions on the following topics:
• Purines and pyrimidines
• Nucleosides and nucleotides
4. Discovery
• In 1868, Friederich Miescher
isolated nucleic acid (then called
nuclein) from pus cells.
Friederich
Miescher
1844–1895
5. Discovery
• Albrecht Kossel (Nobel prize,
1910) differentiated RNA and
DNA in 1882.
• In 1906, Kossel described the 4
bases in nucleic acids.
Albrecht Kossel
NP 1910
1853–1927
6. Functions
• Nucleotides are precursors of the nucleic acids, deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).
• The nucleic acids are concerned with the storage and transfer of
genetic information.
7. Functions
• The universal currency of energy, namely ATP, is a nucleotide
derivative.
• Nucleotides are also components of important co-enzymes like
- NAD+ and FAD, and
- metabolic regulators such as cAMP and cGMP.
8. Composition of Nucleotides
• A nucleotide is made up of 3 components:
- a. Nitrogenous base (a purine or a pyrimidine)
- b. Pentose sugar, either ribose or deoxyribose
- c. Phosphate groups esterified to the sugar.
9. Composition of Nucleotides
• When a base combines with a pentose sugar, a nucleoside is formed.
• When the nucleoside is esterified to a phosphate group, it is called a
nucleotide or nucleoside monophosphate.
10. Composition of Nucleotides
• When a second phosphate gets esterified to the existing phosphate
group, a nucleoside diphosphate is generated.
• The attachment of a 3rd phosphate group results in the formation of
a nucleoside triphosphate.
• The nucleic acids (DNA and RNA) are polymers of nucleoside
monophosphates
11. Bases Present in the Nucleic Acids
• Two types of nitrogenous bases;
- the purines and pyrimidines are present in nucleic acids.
12. Purine Bases
• The purine bases present in RNA and DNA are the same;
- adenine and guanine.
• Adenine is 6-amino purine and guanine is 2-amino, 6-oxopurine.
• The numbering of the purine ring with the structure of adenine and
guanine are shown in Figure.
14. Minor Purine Bases
• These bases may be found in small amounts in nucleic acids and
hence called minor bases.
• These are hypoxanthine (6-oxopurine) and
Xanthine (2, 6-di-oxopurine).
Minor bases seen in nucleic acids
15. Minor Purine Bases
• Uric acid (2,6,8-tri-oxopurine) is formed as the end product of the
catabolism of other purine bases.
• It can exist in the "enol" as well as "keto" forms (tautomeric forms).
Keto form is by far the predominant type under physiological conditions.
Minor bases seen in
nucleic acids
16. Pyrimidine Bases
• The pyrimidine bases present in nucleic acids are
cytosine,
thymine and
uracil.
19. Modified pyrimidine bases
• A few other modified pyrimidine bases like dihydrouracil and 5-
methyl cytosine are also found rarely in some types of RNA.
Modified pyrimidine bases
20.
21. Nucleosides
• Nucleosides are formed when bases are attached to the pentose
sugar, D-ribose or 2-deoxy-D-ribose.
Sugar groups in nucleic acids
22. Nucleosides
• All the bases are attached to the corresponding pentose sugar by a
beta-N-glycosidic bond between the 1st carbon of the pentose sugar
and N9 of a purine or N1 of a pyrimidine.
• The deoxy nucleosides are denoted by adding the prefix d- before the
nucleoside.
23. Nucleosides
• The carbon atoms of the pentose sugar are denoted by using a prime
number to avoid confusion with the carbon atoms of the purine or
pyrimidine ring.
Numbering in base and
sugar groups.
Atoms in sugar is denoted
with primed numbers.
25. Nucleosides
• Nucleosides with purine bases have the suffix -sine, while pyrimidine
nucleosides end with -dine. vi. Uracil combines with ribose only; and
thymine with deoxy ribose only.
27. Nucleotides
• These are phosphate esters of nucleosides.
• Base plus pentose sugar plus phosphoric acid is a nucleotide.
28. Nucleotides
• The esterification occurs at the 5th or 3rd hydroxyl group of the
pentose sugar.
• Most of the nucleoside phosphates involved in biological function are
5'-phosphates.
30. Nucleotides
• Since 5'-nucleotides are more often seen, they are simply written
without any prefix.
• For example, 5'-AMP is abbreviated as AMP; but 3' variety is always
written as 3'-AMP.
31. Nucleotides
• Moreover, a base can combine with either ribose or deoxy ribose,
which in turn can be phosphorylated at 3' or 5' positions.
• One purine and one pyrimidine derivative are given as examples in
Table 43.3.
33. Nucleotides
• Many co-enzymes are derivatives of adenosine monophosphate.
• Examples are NAD+, NADP, FAD and Co-enzyme A.
34. Nucleotides
• Nucleotides and nucleic acids absorb light at a wavelength of 260 nm;
this aspect is used to quantitate them.
• As nucleic acids absorb ultraviolet light, chemical modifications are
produced leading to mutation and carcinogenesis.
35. Nucleoside Triphosphates
• Corresponding nucleoside di- and tri- phosphates are formed by
esterification of further phosphate groups to the existing ones.
• In general, any nucleoside triphosphate is abbreviated as NTP or
d-NTP.
37. Nucleoside Triphosphates
• Nucleoside diphosphate
contains one high energy
bond and triphosphates
have 2 high energy bonds.
• ATP is the universal energy
currency.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
38. Nucleoside Triphosphates
• It is formed during oxidative processes by trapping the released
energy in the high energy phosphate bond.
• A phosphodiester linkage may be formed between the 3' and 5'
positions of ribose group. Such compounds are called cyclic
nucleotides.
39. Nucleoside Triphosphates
• 3', 5'-cyclic AMP or cAMP
is a major metabolic
regulator.
• Cyclic GMP also behaves
similarly.
• These are second
messengers in mediating
the action of several
hormones.
3',5'-cyclic AMP or cAMP
40. Nucleoside Triphosphates
• Deoxy ribonucleotides are used for synthesis of DNA and
ribonucleotides for RNA.
• In pseudouridylic acid (found in tRNA) uridine is attached to ribose
phosphate in a C-C bond instead of C-N bond in UMP.
42. Nucleoside Triphosphates
• High energy compounds are listed in Table. 20.2.
• Please note that active methionine, amino acid adenylates, active
sulfate, etc. are higher energy compounds containing adenosine
monophosphate.