This chapter discusses the costs of production for a firm. It explains the differences between fixed and variable costs, as well as how average and marginal costs are determined. In the short run, costs are influenced by increasing or decreasing returns. In the long run, the user cost of capital must be considered. Cost curves, including total, average, and marginal costs are presented to show how costs change with different levels of output.
The cost of production/Chapter 7(pindyck)RAHUL SINHA
content
•MEASURING COST: WHICH COSTS MATTER?
•Fixed and variable cost
•Fixed versus sunk cost
•Amortizing Sunk Costs
•Marginal cost
•Average cost
•Determinants of short run cost
•Diminishing marginal returns
•The shapes of cost curves
•The Average–Marginal Relationship
•Costs in a long run
•Cost minimizing input choices
•Isocost lines
•Marginal rate of technical substitution
•Expansion path
•The Inflexibility of Short-Run Production
•Long run average cost
•Economies and Diseconomies of Scale
•The Relationship Between Short-Run and Long-Run Cost
•Break even analysis
The cost of production/Chapter 7(pindyck)RAHUL SINHA
content
•MEASURING COST: WHICH COSTS MATTER?
•Fixed and variable cost
•Fixed versus sunk cost
•Amortizing Sunk Costs
•Marginal cost
•Average cost
•Determinants of short run cost
•Diminishing marginal returns
•The shapes of cost curves
•The Average–Marginal Relationship
•Costs in a long run
•Cost minimizing input choices
•Isocost lines
•Marginal rate of technical substitution
•Expansion path
•The Inflexibility of Short-Run Production
•Long run average cost
•Economies and Diseconomies of Scale
•The Relationship Between Short-Run and Long-Run Cost
•Break even analysis
The firm is an economic institution that transforms factors of production into consumer goods – it:
Organizes factors of production.
Produces goods and services.
Sells produced goods and services.
Konsep Balanced Score Card. Penilaian kinerja dilihat dari 4 perspektif yaitu perspektif keuangan, konsumen, learn and growth dan proses bisnis internal.
Makalah Analisis PT Kereta API Indonesia . membahas analisis strategik dalam perusahaan kereta api, dimana dampak peraturan harga pesawat tidak ada penetapan batas bawah maka kereta api berdampak.
Makalah Analisis PT Kereta API Indonesia . membahas analisis strategik dalam perusahaan kereta api, dimana dampak peraturan harga pesawat tidak ada penetapan batas bawah maka kereta api berdampak.
Dmfi booklet indonesian. isi petisi nya yah jangan lupa klik www.dogmeatfreeindonesia.org
tidak sampai 1 menit isi petisi ini agar indonesia bebas dari daging anjing, anjing layak diperlakukan layak dan lebih baik.
tolong ya teman - teman
Dmfi booklet indonesian. isi petisi nya yah jangan lupa klik www.dogmeatfreeindonesia.org
tidak sampai 1 menit isi petisi ini agar indonesia bebas dari daging anjing, anjing layak diperlakukan layak dan lebih baik.
tolong ya teman - teman
The Evolution of Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) in India: Challenges...beulahfernandes8
Role in Financial System
NBFCs are critical in bridging the financial inclusion gap.
They provide specialized financial services that cater to segments often neglected by traditional banks.
Economic Impact
NBFCs contribute significantly to India's GDP.
They support sectors like micro, small, and medium enterprises (MSMEs), housing finance, and personal loans.
What website can I sell pi coins securely.DOT TECH
Currently there are no website or exchange that allow buying or selling of pi coins..
But you can still easily sell pi coins, by reselling it to exchanges/crypto whales interested in holding thousands of pi coins before the mainnet launch.
Who is a pi merchant?
A pi merchant is someone who buys pi coins from miners and resell to these crypto whales and holders of pi..
This is because pi network is not doing any pre-sale. The only way exchanges can get pi is by buying from miners and pi merchants stands in between the miners and the exchanges.
How can I sell my pi coins?
Selling pi coins is really easy, but first you need to migrate to mainnet wallet before you can do that. I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade with.
Tele-gram.
@Pi_vendor_247
If you are looking for a pi coin investor. Then look no further because I have the right one he is a pi vendor (he buy and resell to whales in China). I met him on a crypto conference and ever since I and my friends have sold more than 10k pi coins to him And he bought all and still want more. I will drop his telegram handle below just send him a message.
@Pi_vendor_247
How to get verified on Coinbase Account?_.docxBuy bitget
t's important to note that buying verified Coinbase accounts is not recommended and may violate Coinbase's terms of service. Instead of searching to "buy verified Coinbase accounts," follow the proper steps to verify your own account to ensure compliance and security.
The secret way to sell pi coins effortlessly.DOT TECH
Well as we all know pi isn't launched yet. But you can still sell your pi coins effortlessly because some whales in China are interested in holding massive pi coins. And they are willing to pay good money for it. If you are interested in selling I will leave a contact for you. Just telegram this number below. I sold about 3000 pi coins to him and he paid me immediately.
Telegram: @Pi_vendor_247
Turin Startup Ecosystem 2024 - Ricerca sulle Startup e il Sistema dell'Innov...Quotidiano Piemontese
Turin Startup Ecosystem 2024
Una ricerca de il Club degli Investitori, in collaborazione con ToTeM Torino Tech Map e con il supporto della ESCP Business School e di Growth Capital
What price will pi network be listed on exchangesDOT TECH
The rate at which pi will be listed is practically unknown. But due to speculations surrounding it the predicted rate is tends to be from 30$ — 50$.
So if you are interested in selling your pi network coins at a high rate tho. Or you can't wait till the mainnet launch in 2026. You can easily trade your pi coins with a merchant.
A merchant is someone who buys pi coins from miners and resell them to Investors looking forward to hold massive quantities till mainnet launch.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi vendor to trade with.
@Pi_vendor_247
when will pi network coin be available on crypto exchange.DOT TECH
There is no set date for when Pi coins will enter the market.
However, the developers are working hard to get them released as soon as possible.
Once they are available, users will be able to exchange other cryptocurrencies for Pi coins on designated exchanges.
But for now the only way to sell your pi coins is through verified pi vendor.
Here is the telegram contact of my personal pi vendor
@Pi_vendor_247
The European Unemployment Puzzle: implications from population agingGRAPE
We study the link between the evolving age structure of the working population and unemployment. We build a large new Keynesian OLG model with a realistic age structure, labor market frictions, sticky prices, and aggregate shocks. Once calibrated to the European economy, we quantify the extent to which demographic changes over the last three decades have contributed to the decline of the unemployment rate. Our findings yield important implications for the future evolution of unemployment given the anticipated further aging of the working population in Europe. We also quantify the implications for optimal monetary policy: lowering inflation volatility becomes less costly in terms of GDP and unemployment volatility, which hints that optimal monetary policy may be more hawkish in an aging society. Finally, our results also propose a partial reversal of the European-US unemployment puzzle due to the fact that the share of young workers is expected to remain robust in the US.
US Economic Outlook - Being Decided - M Capital Group August 2021.pdfpchutichetpong
The U.S. economy is continuing its impressive recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic and not slowing down despite re-occurring bumps. The U.S. savings rate reached its highest ever recorded level at 34% in April 2020 and Americans seem ready to spend. The sectors that had been hurt the most by the pandemic specifically reduced consumer spending, like retail, leisure, hospitality, and travel, are now experiencing massive growth in revenue and job openings.
Could this growth lead to a “Roaring Twenties”? As quickly as the U.S. economy contracted, experiencing a 9.1% drop in economic output relative to the business cycle in Q2 2020, the largest in recorded history, it has rebounded beyond expectations. This surprising growth seems to be fueled by the U.S. government’s aggressive fiscal and monetary policies, and an increase in consumer spending as mobility restrictions are lifted. Unemployment rates between June 2020 and June 2021 decreased by 5.2%, while the demand for labor is increasing, coupled with increasing wages to incentivize Americans to rejoin the labor force. Schools and businesses are expected to fully reopen soon. In parallel, vaccination rates across the country and the world continue to rise, with full vaccination rates of 50% and 14.8% respectively.
However, it is not completely smooth sailing from here. According to M Capital Group, the main risks that threaten the continued growth of the U.S. economy are inflation, unsettled trade relations, and another wave of Covid-19 mutations that could shut down the world again. Have we learned from the past year of COVID-19 and adapted our economy accordingly?
“In order for the U.S. economy to continue growing, whether there is another wave or not, the U.S. needs to focus on diversifying supply chains, supporting business investment, and maintaining consumer spending,” says Grace Feeley, a research analyst at M Capital Group.
While the economic indicators are positive, the risks are coming closer to manifesting and threatening such growth. The new variants spreading throughout the world, Delta, Lambda, and Gamma, are vaccine-resistant and muddy the predictions made about the economy and health of the country. These variants bring back the feeling of uncertainty that has wreaked havoc not only on the stock market but the mindset of people around the world. MCG provides unique insight on how to mitigate these risks to possibly ensure a bright economic future.
how to sell pi coins on Bitmart crypto exchangeDOT TECH
Yes. Pi network coins can be exchanged but not on bitmart exchange. Because pi network is still in the enclosed mainnet. The only way pioneers are able to trade pi coins is by reselling the pi coins to pi verified merchants.
A verified merchant is someone who buys pi network coins and resell it to exchanges looking forward to hold till mainnet launch.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade with.
@Pi_vendor_247
Financial Assets: Debit vs Equity Securities.pptxWrito-Finance
financial assets represent claim for future benefit or cash. Financial assets are formed by establishing contracts between participants. These financial assets are used for collection of huge amounts of money for business purposes.
Two major Types: Debt Securities and Equity Securities.
Debt Securities are Also known as fixed-income securities or instruments. The type of assets is formed by establishing contracts between investor and issuer of the asset.
• The first type of Debit securities is BONDS. Bonds are issued by corporations and government (both local and national government).
• The second important type of Debit security is NOTES. Apart from similarities associated with notes and bonds, notes have shorter term maturity.
• The 3rd important type of Debit security is TRESURY BILLS. These securities have short-term ranging from three months, six months, and one year. Issuer of such securities are governments.
• Above discussed debit securities are mostly issued by governments and corporations. CERTIFICATE OF DEPOSITS CDs are issued by Banks and Financial Institutions. Risk factor associated with CDs gets reduced when issued by reputable institutions or Banks.
Following are the risk attached with debt securities: Credit risk, interest rate risk and currency risk
There are no fixed maturity dates in such securities, and asset’s value is determined by company’s performance. There are two major types of equity securities: common stock and preferred stock.
Common Stock: These are simple equity securities and bear no complexities which the preferred stock bears. Holders of such securities or instrument have the voting rights when it comes to select the company’s board of director or the business decisions to be made.
Preferred Stock: Preferred stocks are sometime referred to as hybrid securities, because it contains elements of both debit security and equity security. Preferred stock confers ownership rights to security holder that is why it is equity instrument
<a href="https://www.writofinance.com/equity-securities-features-types-risk/" >Equity securities </a> as a whole is used for capital funding for companies. Companies have multiple expenses to cover. Potential growth of company is required in competitive market. So, these securities are used for capital generation, and then uses it for company’s growth.
Concluding remarks
Both are employed in business. Businesses are often established through debit securities, then what is the need for equity securities. Companies have to cover multiple expenses and expansion of business. They can also use equity instruments for repayment of debits. So, there are multiple uses for securities. As an investor, you need tools for analysis. Investment decisions are made by carefully analyzing the market. For better analysis of the stock market, investors often employ financial analysis of companies.
what is the best method to sell pi coins in 2024DOT TECH
The best way to sell your pi coins safely is trading with an exchange..but since pi is not launched in any exchange, and second option is through a VERIFIED pi merchant.
Who is a pi merchant?
A pi merchant is someone who buys pi coins from miners and pioneers and resell them to Investors looking forward to hold massive amounts before mainnet launch in 2026.
I will leave the telegram contact of my personal pi merchant to trade pi coins with.
@Pi_vendor_247
2. Topics to be Discussed
Measuring Cost: Which Costs Matter?
Cost in the Short Run
Cost in the Long Run
Long-Run Versus Short-Run Cost
Curves
3. Topics to be Discussed
Production with Two Outputs--
Economies of Scope
Dynamic Changes in Costs--The
Learning Curve
Estimating and Predicting Cost
4. Introduction
The production technology measures
the relationship between input and
output.
Given the production technology,
managers must choose how to
produce.
5. Introduction
To determine the optimal level of
output and the input combinations, we
must convert from the unit
measurements of the production
technology to dollar measurements or
costs.
6. Measuring Cost:
Which Costs Matter?
Accounting Cost
Actual expenses plus depreciation
charges for capital equipment
Economic Cost
Cost to a firm of utilizing economic
resources in production, including
opportunity cost
Economic Cost vs. Accounting CostEconomic Cost vs. Accounting Cost
7. Opportunity cost.
Cost associated with opportunities that
are foregone when a firm’s resources
are not put to their highest-value use.
Measuring Cost:
Which Costs Matter?
8. An Example
A firm owns its own building and pays no
rent for office space
Does this mean the cost of office space
is zero?
Measuring Cost:
Which Costs Matter?
9. Sunk Cost
Expenditure that has been made and
cannot be recovered
Should not influence a firm’s decisions.
Measuring Cost:
Which Costs Matter?
10. An Example
A firm pays $500,000 for an option to buy a
building.
The cost of the building is $5 million or a total of
$5.5 million.
The firm finds another building for $5.25 million.
Which building should the firm buy?
Measuring Cost:
Which Costs Matter?
11. Choosing the Location
for a New Law School Building
Northwestern University Law School
1) Current location in downtown
Chicago
2) Alternative location in Evanston
with the main campus
12. Northwestern University Law School
3) Choosing a Site
Land owned in Chicago
Must purchase land in Evanston
Chicago location might appear
cheaper without considering the
opportunity cost of the downtown land
(i.e. what it could be sold for)
Choosing the Location
for a New Law School Building
13. Northwestern University Law School
3) Choosing a Site
Chicago location chosen--very costly
Justified only if there is some intrinsic
values associated with being in
Chicago
If not, it was an inefficient decision if it
was based on the assumption that the
downtown land was “free”
Choosing the Location
for a New Law School Building
14. Total output is a function of variable
inputs and fixed inputs.
Therefore, the total cost of production
equals the fixed cost (the cost of the
fixed inputs) plus the variable cost
(the cost of the variable inputs), or…
VCFCTC +=
Measuring Cost:
Which Costs Matter?
Fixed and Variable CostsFixed and Variable Costs
15. Fixed Cost
Does not vary with the level of output
Variable Cost
Cost that varies as output varies
Measuring Cost:
Which Costs Matter?
Fixed and Variable CostsFixed and Variable Costs
16. Fixed Cost
Cost paid by a firm that is in business
regardless of the level of output
Sunk Cost
Cost that have been incurred and cannot
be recovered
Measuring Cost:
Which Costs Matter?
17. Personal Computers: most costs
are variable
Components, labor
Software: most costs are sunk
Cost of developing the software
Measuring Cost:
Which Costs Matter?
20. Cost in the Short Run
Marginal Cost (MC) is the cost of
expanding output by one unit. Since
fixed cost have no impact on marginal
cost, it can be written as:
Q
TC
Q
VC
MC
∆
∆
=
∆
∆
=
21. Cost in the Short Run
Average Total Cost (ATC) is the cost
per unit of output, or average fixed
cost (AFC) plus average variable cost
(AVC). This can be written:
Q
TVC
Q
TFC
ATC +=
22. Cost in the Short Run
Average Total Cost (ATC) is the cost
per unit of output, or average fixed
cost (AFC) plus average variable cost
(AVC). This can be written:
Q
TC
orAVCAFCATC +=
23. Cost in the Short Run
The Determinants of Short-Run Cost
The relationship between the production
function and cost can be exemplified by
either increasing returns and cost or
decreasing returns and cost.
24. Cost in the Short Run
The Determinants of Short-Run Cost
Increasing returns and cost
With increasing returns, output is increasing
relative to input and variable cost and total
cost will fall relative to output.
Decreasing returns and cost
With decreasing returns, output is
decreasing relative to input and variable cost
and total cost will rise relative to output.
25. Cost in the Short Run
For Example: Assume the wage rate
(w) is fixed relative to the number of
workers hired. Then:
Q
VC
MC
∆
∆
=
LVC w=
26. Cost in the Short Run
Continuing:
LVC ∆=∆ w
Q
L
MC
∆
∆
=
w
27. Cost in the Short Run
Continuing:
L
MPL
∆
∆
=∆
Q
LMP
1
Q
L
Qunit1aforL
∆
=
∆
∆
=∆∆
28. Cost in the Short Run
In conclusion:
…and a low marginal product (MP)
leads to a high marginal cost (MC)
and vise versa.
LMP
MC
w
=
29. Cost in the Short Run
Consequently (from the table):
MC decreases initially with increasing
returns
0 through 4 units of output
MC increases with decreasing returns
5 through 11 units of output
31. Cost Curves for a Firm
Output
Cost
($ per
year)
100
200
300
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
VC
Variable cost
increases with
production and
the rate varies with
increasing &
decreasing returns.
TC
Total cost
is the vertical
sum of FC
and VC.
FC50
Fixed cost does not
vary with output
32. Cost Curves for a Firm
Output (units/yr.)
Cost
($ per
unit)
25
50
75
100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
MC
ATC
AVC
AFC
33. Cost Curves for a Firm
The line drawn from
the origin to the
tangent of the
variable cost curve:
Its slope equals AVC
The slope of a point
on VC equals MC
Therefore, MC = AVC
at 7 units of output
(point A)
Output
P
100
200
300
400
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13
FC
VC
A
TC
34. Cost Curves for a Firm
Unit Costs
AFC falls
continuously
When MC < AVC or
MC < ATC, AVC &
ATC decrease
When MC > AVC or
MC > ATC, AVC &
ATC increase Output (units/yr.)
Cost
($ per
unit)
25
50
75
100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
MC
ATC
AVC
AFC
35. Cost Curves for a Firm
Unit Costs
MC = AVC and ATC
at minimum AVC
and ATC
Minimum AVC
occurs at a lower
output than minimum
ATC due to FC
Output (units/yr.)
Cost
($ per
unit)
25
50
75
100
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
MC
ATC
AVC
AFC
36. Operating Costs for Aluminum Smelting
($/Ton - based on an output of 600 tons/day)
Variable costs that are constant at all output levels
Electricity $316
Alumina 369
Other raw materials 125
Plant power and fuel 10
Subtotal $820
37. Operating Costs for Aluminum Smelting
($/Ton - based on an output of 600 tons/day)
Variable costs that increase when output exceeds 600 tons/day
Labor $150
Maintenance 120
Freight 50
Subtotal $320
Total operating costs $1140
38. The Short-Run Variable
Costs of Aluminum Smelting
Output (tons/day)
Cost
($ per ton)
1100
1200
1300
300 600 900
1140
MC
AVC
39. Cost in the Long Run
User Cost of Capital = Economic
Depreciation + (Interest Rate)(Value
of Capital)
The User Cost of CapitalThe User Cost of Capital
40. Cost in the Long Run
Example
Delta buys a Boeing 737 for $150 million
with an expected life of 30 years
Annual economic depreciation =
$150 million/30 = $5 million
Interest rate = 10%
The User Cost of CapitalThe User Cost of Capital
41. Cost in the Long Run
Example
User Cost of Capital = $5 million + (.10)
($150 million – depreciation)
Year 1 = $5 million + (.10)
($150 million) = $20 million
Year 10 = $5 million + (.10)
($100 million) = $15 million
The User Cost of CapitalThe User Cost of Capital
42. Cost in the Long Run
Rate per dollar of capital
r = Depreciation Rate + Interest Rate
The User Cost of CapitalThe User Cost of Capital
43. Cost in the Long Run
Airline Example
Depreciation Rate = 1/30 = 3.33/yr
Rate of Return = 10%/yr
User Cost of Capital
r = 3.33 + 10 = 13.33%/yr
The User Cost of CapitalThe User Cost of Capital
44. Cost in the Long Run
Assumptions
Two Inputs: Labor (L) & capital (K)
Price of labor: wage rate (w)
The price of capital
R = depreciation rate + interest rate
The Cost Minimizing Input ChoiceThe Cost Minimizing Input Choice
45. Cost in the Long Run
Question
If capital was rented, would it change the
value of r ?
The User Cost of CapitalThe User Cost of CapitalThe Cost Minimizing Input ChoiceThe Cost Minimizing Input Choice
46. Cost in the Long Run
The Isocost Line
C = wL + rK
Isocost: A line showing all combinations
of L & K that can be purchased for the
same cost
The User Cost of CapitalThe User Cost of CapitalThe Cost Minimizing Input ChoiceThe Cost Minimizing Input Choice
47. Cost in the Long Run
Rewriting C as linear:
K = C/r - (w/r)L
Slope of the isocost:
is the ratio of the wage rate to rental cost of
capital.
This shows the rate at which capital can be
substituted for labor with no change in cost.
( )r
w
L
K −=
∆
∆
The Isocost LineThe Isocost Line
48. Choosing Inputs
We will address how to minimize cost
for a given level of output.
We will do so by combining isocosts with
isoquants
49. Producing a Given
Output at Minimum Cost
Labor per year
Capital
per
year
Isocost C2 shows quantity
Q1 can be produced with
combination K2L2 or K3L3.
However, both of these
are higher cost combinations
than K1L1.
Q1
Q1 is an isoquant
for output Q1.
Isocost curve C0 shows
all combinations of K and L
that can produce Q1 at this
cost level.
C0 C1 C2
CO C1 C2 are
three
isocost lines
A
K1
L1
K3
L3
K2
L2
50. Input Substitution When
an Input Price Change
C2
This yields a new combination
of K and L to produce Q1.
Combination B is used in place
of combination A.
The new combination represents
the higher cost of labor relative
to capital and therefore capital
is substituted for labor.
K2
L2
B
C1
K1
L1
A
Q1
If the price of labor
changes, the isocost curve
becomes steeper due to
the change in the slope -(w/L).
Labor per year
Capital
per
year
51. Cost in the Long Run
Isoquants and Isocosts and the
Production Function
K
L
MP
MP-MRTS =
∆
∆=
L
K
r
w
L
K −=
∆
∆=lineisocostofSlope
r
w
MP
MP
K
L ==and
52. Cost in the Long Run
The minimum cost combination can
then be written as:
Minimum cost for a given output will
occur when each dollar of input added to
the production process will add an
equivalent amount of output.
rw
KL MPMP =
53. Cost in the Long Run
Question
If w = $10, r = $2, and MPL = MPK,
which input would the producer use
more of? Why?
54. The Effect of Effluent
Fees on Firms’ Input Choices
Firms that have a by-product to
production produce an effluent.
An effluent fee is a per-unit fee that
firms must pay for the effluent that
they emit.
How would a producer respond to an
effluent fee on production?
55. The Scenario: Steel Producer
1) Located on a river: Low cost
transportation and emission
disposal (effluent).
2) EPA imposes a per unit effluent
fee to reduce the environmentally
harmful effluent.
The Effect of Effluent
Fees on Firms’ Input Choices
56. The Scenario: Steel Producer
3) How should the firm respond?
The Effect of Effluent
Fees on Firms’ Input Choices
57. The Cost-Minimizing
Response to an Effluent Fee
Waste Water
(gal./month)
Capital
(machine
hours per
month)
Output of 2,000
Tons of Steel per Month
A
10,000 18,000 20,0000 12,000
Slope of
isocost = -10/40
= -0.25
2,000
1,000
4,000
3,000
5,000
5,000
58. The Cost-Minimizing
Response to an Effluent Fee
Output of 2,000
Tons of Steel per Month
2,000
1,000
4,000
3,000
5,000
10,000 18,000 20,0000 12,000
Capital
(machine
hours per
month)
E
5,000
3,500
Slope of
isocost = -20/40
= -0.50
B Following the imposition
of the effluent fee of $10/gallon
the slope of the isocost changes
which the higher cost of water to
capital so now combination B
is selected.A
Prior to regulation the
firm chooses to produce
an output using 10,000
gallons of water and 2,000
machine-hours of capital at A.
C
F
Waste Water
(gal./month)
59. Observations:
The more easily factors can be
substituted, the more effective the fee is
in reducing the effluent.
The greater the degree of substitutes,
the less the firm will have to pay (for
example: $50,000 with combination B
instead of $100,000 with combination A)
The Effect of Effluent
Fees on Firms’ Input Choices
60. Cost minimization with Varying
Output Levels
A firm’s expansion path shows the
minimum cost combinations of labor and
capital at each level of output.
Cost in the Long Run
61. A Firm’s Expansion Path
Labor per year
Capital
per
year
Expansion Path
The expansion path illustrates
the least-cost combinations of
labor and capital that can be
used to produce each level of
output in the long-run.
25
50
75
100
150
10050 150 300200
A
$2000
Isocost Line
200 Unit
Isoquant
B
$3000 Isocost Line
300 Unit Isoquant
C
62. A Firm’s Long-Run Total Cost Curve
Output, Units/yr
Cost
per
Year
Expansion Path
1000
100 300200
2000
3000
D
E
F
63. Long-Run Versus
Short-Run Cost Curves
What happens to average costs when
both inputs are variable (long run)
versus only having one input that is
variable (short run)?
64. Long-Run
Expansion Path
The long-run expansion
path is drawn as before..
The Inflexibility of
Short-Run Production
Labor per year
Capital
per
year
L2
Q2
K2
D
C
F
E
Q1
A
BL1
K1
L3
P
Short-Run
Expansion Path
65. Long-Run Average Cost (LAC)
Constant Returns to Scale
If input is doubled, output will double
and average cost is constant at all
levels of output.
Long-Run Versus
Short-Run Cost Curves
66. Long-Run Average Cost (LAC)
Increasing Returns to Scale
If input is doubled, output will more
than double and average cost
decreases at all levels of output.
Long-Run Versus
Short-Run Cost Curves
67. Long-Run Average Cost (LAC)
Decreasing Returns to Scale
If input is doubled, the increase in
output is less than twice as large and
average cost increases with output.
Long-Run Versus
Short-Run Cost Curves
68. Long-Run Average Cost (LAC)
In the long-run:
Firms experience increasing and
decreasing returns to scale and
therefore long-run average cost is “U”
shaped.
Long-Run Versus
Short-Run Cost Curves
69. Long-Run Average Cost (LAC)
Long-run marginal cost leads long-run
average cost:
If LMC < LAC, LAC will fall
If LMC > LAC, LAC will rise
Therefore, LMC = LAC at the
minimum of LAC
Long-Run Versus
Short-Run Cost Curves
71. Question
What is the relationship between long-
run average cost and long-run marginal
cost when long-run average cost is
constant?
Long-Run Versus
Short-Run Cost Curves
72. Economies and Diseconomies of
Scale
Economies of Scale
Increase in output is greater than the
increase in inputs.
Diseconomies of Scale
Increase in output is less than the
increase in inputs.
Long-Run Versus
Short-Run Cost Curves
73. Measuring Economies of Scale
outputin
increase1%afromcostin%Δ
elasticityoutputCostEc
=
−=
Long-Run Versus
Short-Run Cost Curves
74. Measuring Economies of Scale
)//()/( QQCCEc ∆∆=
MC/AC)//()/( =∆∆= QCQCEc
Long-Run Versus
Short-Run Cost Curves
75. Therefore, the following is true:
EC < 1: MC < AC
Average cost indicate decreasing economies
of scale
EC = 1: MC = AC
Average cost indicate constant economies of
scale
EC > 1: MC > AC
Average cost indicate increasing
diseconomies of scale
Long-Run Versus
Short-Run Cost Curves
76. The Relationship Between Short-Run
and Long-Run Cost
We will use short and long-run cost to
determine the optimal plant size
Long-Run Versus
Short-Run Cost Curves
77. Long-Run Cost with
Constant Returns to Scale
Output
Cost
($ per unit
of output
Q3
SAC3
SMC3
Q2
SAC2
SMC2
LAC =
LMC
With many plant sizes with SAC = $10
the LAC = LMC and is a straight line
Q1
SAC1
SMC1
78. Observation
The optimal plant size will depend on the
anticipated output (e.g. Q1 choose SAC1,etc).
The long-run average cost curve is the
envelope of the firm’s short-run average cost
curves.
Question
What would happen to average cost if an output
level other than that shown is chosen?
Long-Run Cost with
Constant Returns to Scale
79. Long-Run Cost with Economies
and Diseconomies of Scale
Output
Cost
($ per unit
of output
SMC1
SAC1
SAC2
SMC2
LMC
If the output is Q1 a manager
would chose the small plant
SAC1 and SAC $8.
Point B is on the LAC because
it is a least cost plant for a
given output.
$10
Q1
$8
B
A
LACSAC3
SMC3
80. What is the firms’ long-run cost
curve?
Firms can change scale to change
output in the long-run.
The long-run cost curve is the dark blue
portion of the SAC curve which
represents the minimum cost for any
level of output.
Long-Run Cost with
Constant Returns to Scale
81. Observations
The LAC does not include the minimum
points of small and large size plants?
Why not?
LMC is not the envelope of the short-run
marginal cost. Why not?
Long-Run Cost with
Constant Returns to Scale
82. Production with Two
Outputs--Economies of Scope
Examples:
Chicken farm--poultry and eggs
Automobile company--cars and trucks
University--Teaching and research
83. Economies of scope exist when the joint
output of a single firm is greater than the
output that could be achieved by two
different firms each producing a single
output.
What are the advantages of joint
production?
Consider an automobile company producing
cars and tractors
Production with Two
Outputs--Economies of Scope
84. Advantages
1) Both use capital and labor.
2) The firms share management
resources.
3) Both use the same labor skills and
type of machinery.
Production with Two
Outputs--Economies of Scope
85. Production:
Firms must choose how much of each to
produce.
The alternative quantities can be
illustrated using product transformation
curves.
Production with Two
Outputs--Economies of Scope
86. Product Transformation Curve
Number of cars
Number
of tractors
O2 O1 illustrates a low level
of output. O2 illustrates
a higher level of output with
two times as much labor
and capital.O1
Each curve shows
combinations of output
with a given combination
of L & K.
87. Observations
Product transformation curves are
negatively sloped
Constant returns exist in this example
Since the production transformation
curve is concave is joint production
desirable?
Production with Two
Outputs--Economies of Scope
88. Observations
There is no direct relationship between
economies of scope and economies of
scale.
May experience economies of scope
and diseconomies of scale
May have economies of scale and not
have economies of scope
Production with Two
Outputs--Economies of Scope
89. The degree of economies of scope
measures the savings in cost and can be
written:
C(Q1) is the cost of producing Q1
C(Q2) is the cost of producing Q2
C(Q1Q2) is the joint cost of producing both
products
)(
)()()C(
SC
2,1
2,121
QQC
QQCQCQ −+
=
Production with Two
Outputs--Economies of Scope
90. Interpretation:
If SC > 0 -- Economies of scope
If SC < 0 -- Diseconomies of scope
Production with Two
Outputs--Economies of Scope
91. Economies of Scope
in the Trucking Industry
Issues
Truckload versus less than truck load
Direct versus indirect routing
Length of haul
92. Questions:
Economies of Scale
Are large-scale, direct hauls cheaper
and more profitable than individual
hauls by small trucks?
Are there cost advantages from
operating both direct and indirect
hauls?
Economies of Scope
in the Trucking Industry
93. Empirical Findings
An analysis of 105 trucking firms
examined four distinct outputs.
Short hauls with partial loads
Intermediate hauls with partial loads
Long hauls with partial loads
Hauls with total loads
Economies of Scope
in the Trucking Industry
94. Empirical Findings
Results
SC = 1.576 for reasonably large firm
SC = 0.104 for very large firms
Interpretation
Combining partial loads at an intermediate
location lowers cost management difficulties
with very large firms.
Economies of Scope
in the Trucking Industry
95. Dynamic Changes in
Costs--The Learning Curve
The learning curve measures the
impact of worker’s experience on the
costs of production.
It describes the relationship between
a firm’s cumulative output and
amount of inputs needed to produce a
unit of output.
96. The Learning Curve
Cumulative number of
machine lots produced
Hours of labor
per machine lot
10 20 30 40 500
2
4
6
8
10
97. The Learning Curve
Hours of labor
per machine lot
10 20 30 40 500
2
4
6
8
10
The horizontal axis
measures the
cumulative number of
hours of machine
tools the firm has
produced
The vertical axis
measures the number
of hours of labor
needed to produce
each lot.
98. The learning curve in the figure is based
on the relationship:
β−
= BNL
1and0betweenisandpositiveare
constantsareand
outputofunitperinputlabor
producedoutputofunitscumulative
β
β
B&A
BA,
L
N
=
=
Dynamic Changes in
Costs--The Learning Curve
99.
L equals A + B and this measures labor
input to produce the first unit of output
Labor input remains constant as the
cumulative level of output increases, so
there is no learning
:0=βIf
:1=NIf
Dynamic Changes in
Costs--The Learning Curve
100.
L approaches A, and A represent minimum
labor input/unit of output after all learning
has taken place.
The more important the learning effect.
:increasesand0 NIf >β
:largerThe β
Dynamic Changes in
Costs--The Learning Curve
101. The Learning Curve
Cumulative number of
machine lots produced
Hours of labor
per machine lot
10 20 30 40 500
2
4
6
8
10
31.0=β
The chart shows a sharp drop
in lots to a cumulative amount of
20, then small savings at
higher levels.
Doubling cumulative output causes
a 20% reduction in the difference
between the input required and
minimum attainable input requirement.
102. Observations
1) New firms may experience a learning
curve, not economies of scale.
2) Older firms have relatively small
gains from learning.
Dynamic Changes in
Costs--The Learning Curve
103. Economies of
Scale Versus Learning
Output
Cost
($ per unit
of output)
AC1
B
Economies of Scale
A
AC2
Learning
C
104. Predicting the Labor
Requirements of Producing a Given Output
10 1.00 10.0
20 .80 18.0 (10.0 + 8.0)
30 .70 25.0 (18.0 + 7.0)
40 .64 31.4 (25.0 + 6.4)
50 .60 37.4 (31.4 + 6.0)
60 .56 43.0 (37.4 + 5.6)
70 .53 48.3 (43.0 + 5.3)
80 and over .51 53.4 (48.3 + 5.1)
Cumulative Output Per-Unit Labor Requirement Total Labor
(N) for each 10 units of Output (L) Requirement
105. The learning curve implies:
1) The labor requirement falls per unit.
2) Costs will be high at first and then will
fall with learning.
3) After 8 years the labor requirement will be
0.51 and per unit cost will be half
what it was in the first year of production.
Dynamic Changes in
Costs--The Learning Curve
106. Scenario
A new firm enters the chemical processing
industry.
Do they:
1) Produce a low level of output and sell at a
high price?
2) Produce a high level of output and sell at a
low price?
The Learning Curve in Practice
107. The Learning Curve in Practice
How would the learning curve
influence your decision?
108. The Empirical Findings
Study of 37 chemical products
Average cost fell 5.5% per year
For each doubling of plant size, average
production costs fall by 11%
For each doubling of cumulative output, the
average cost of production falls by 27%
Which is more important, the economies of
scale or learning effects?
The Learning Curve in Practice
109. Other Empirical Findings
In the semi-conductor industry a study of
seven generations of DRAM
semiconductors from 1974-1992 found
learning rates averaged 20%.
In the aircraft industry the learning rates
are as high as 40%.
The Learning Curve in Practice
110. Applying Learning Curves
1) To determine if it is profitable to
enter an industry.
2) To determine when profits will
occur based on plant size and
cumulative output.
The Learning Curve in Practice
111. Estimating and Predicting Cost
Estimates of future costs can be
obtained from a cost function, which
relates the cost of production to the
level of output and other variables
that the firm can control.
Suppose we wanted to derive the
total cost curve for automobile
production.
112. Total Cost Curve
for the Automobile Industry
Quantity of Cars
Variable
cost
General Motors
Toyota
Ford
Chrysler
Volvo
Honda
Nissan
113. A linear cost function (does not show
the U-shaped characteristics) might
be:
The linear cost function is applicable
only if marginal cost is constant.
Marginal cost is represented by .
Qβ=VC
β
Estimating and Predicting Cost
114. If we wish to allow for a U-shaped
average cost curve and a marginal
cost that is not constant, we might
use the quadratic cost function:
2
VC QQ γβ +=
Estimating and Predicting Cost
115. If the marginal cost curve is not linear,
we might use a cubic cost function:
32
VC QQQ δγβ ++=
Estimating and Predicting Cost
117. Difficulties in Measuring Cost
1) Output data may represent an
aggregate of different type of products.
2) Cost data may not include opportunity
cost.
3) Allocating cost to a particular product
may be difficult when there is more than
one product line.
Estimating and Predicting Cost
118. Cost Functions and the Measurement of
Scale Economies
Scale Economy Index (SCI)
EC = 1, SCI = 0: no economies or
diseconomies of scale
EC > 1, SCI is negative: diseconomies of
scale
EC < 1, SCI is positive: economies of scale
Estimating and Predicting Cost
119. Cost Functions for Electric Power
Scale Economies in the Electric Power IndustryScale Economies in the Electric Power Industry
Output (million kwh) 43 338 1109 2226 5819
Value of SCI, 1955 .41 .26 .16 .10 .04
120. Average Cost of Production
in the Electric Power Industry
Output (billions of kwh)
Average
Cost
(dollar/1000 kwh)
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
6 12 18 24 30 36
1955
1970
A
121. Cost Functions for Electric Power
Findings
Decline in cost
Not due to economies of scale
Was caused by:
Lower input cost (coal & oil)
Improvements in technology
122. A Cost Function for the
Savings and Loan Industry
The empirical estimation of a long-run
cost function can be useful in the
restructuring of the savings and loan
industry in the wake of the savings
and loan collapse in the 1980s.
123. Data for 86 savings and loans for
1975 & 1976 in six western states
Q = total assets of each S&L
LAC = average operating expense
Q & TC are measured in hundreds of
millions of dollars
Average operating cost are measured as
a percentage of total assets.
A Cost Function for the
Savings and Loan Industry
124. A quadratic long-run average cost function
was estimated for 1975:
Minimum long-run average cost reaches its
point of minimum average total cost when
total assets of the savings and loan reach
$574 million.
2
0.0536Q0.6153Q-2.38LAC +=
A Cost Function for the
Savings and Loan Industry
125. Average operating expenses are
0.61% of total assets.
Almost all of the savings and loans in
the region being studied had
substantially less than $574 million in
assets.
A Cost Function for the
Savings and Loan Industry
126. Questions
1) What are the implications of the
analysis for expansion and
mergers?
2) What are the limitations of using
these results?
A Cost Function for the
Savings and Loan Industry
127. Summary
Managers, investors, and economists
must take into account the
opportunity cost associated with the
use of the firm’s resources.
Firms are faced with both fixed and
variable costs in the short-run.
128. Summary
When there is a single variable input,
as in the short run, the presence of
diminishing returns determines the
shape of the cost curves.
In the long run, all inputs to the
production process are variable.
129. Summary
The firm’s expansion path describes
how its cost-minimizing input choices
vary as the scale or output of its
operation increases.
The long-run average cost curve is
the envelope of the short-run average
cost curves.
130. Summary
A firm enjoys economies of scale
when it can double its output at less
than twice the cost.
Economies of scope arise when the
firm can produce any combination of
the two outputs more cheaply than
could two independent firms that each
produced a single product.
131. Summary
A firm’s average cost of production
can fall over time if the firm “learns”
how to produce more effectively.
Cost functions relate the cost of
production to the level of output of the
firm.