The document provides information about the lymphatic and immune systems. It discusses:
1) The functions of the lymphatic system include maintaining fluid balance, protecting the body from infection and disease, absorbing lipids and fluid, and returning fluid to the bloodstream.
2) Lymph flows through lymphatic capillaries, vessels, and ducts before emptying into veins. Valves in the vessels help propel the lymph forward. Lymphatic flow is aided by muscle contractions and pumps.
3) The immune system includes innate defenses like skin, mucus, antimicrobial proteins, and inflammation as well as adaptive defenses involving lymphocytes and antigen presentation.
The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system and comprises a network of lymphatic vessels that carry lymph fluid directionally towards the heart. The lymph system transports excess interstitial fluid, fatty acids, and immune cells. It has multiple functions including fluid removal from tissues, absorption and transport of fats, and transportation of white blood cells and antigen-presenting cells to lymph nodes to stimulate immune responses. The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels, lymphoid tissues found throughout the body, and lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and tonsils that are involved in immune defenses.
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter waste from the blood to produce urine. Urine travels from the kidneys down the ureters into the bladder, where it is stored until urination. During urination, urine exits the body through the urethra. The kidneys contain nephrons, which are the functional filtering units of the kidney and include a glomerulus and renal tubule. Nephrons remove waste from the blood via glomerular filtration and reabsorb useful molecules like water before urine is stored in the bladder.
Skeletal muscles cause the skeleton to move at joints
They are attached to skeleton by tendons.
Tendons transmit muscle force to the bone.
Tendons are made of collagen fibres & are very strong & stiff
Lecture 8 the cardiovascular system blood vessels and circulationNada G.Youssef
This document summarizes the cardiovascular system, including blood vessels and circulation. It describes the structure and function of arteries, veins, and capillaries. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood back to the heart, and capillaries allow for gas exchange. It also discusses blood pressure, pulse, circulatory routes including systemic and pulmonary circulation, and fetal circulation.
The document provides details on the structure and function of the lymphatic system. It describes lymph, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs.
The lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, lymph organs (spleen and thymus), and diffuse lymphoid tissue. Lymph is a clear fluid that is similar to blood plasma but lacks proteins. It is formed from interstitial fluid that leaks from blood capillaries. Lymph vessels carry lymph through the body and lymph nodes before returning it to the bloodstream. The spleen, thymus, tonsils and other lymphoid tissues are involved in immune functions like phagocytosis and lymphocyte production.
The lymphatic system is part of the immune system. It also maintains fluid balance and plays a role in absorbing fats and fat-soluble nutrients.
The lymphatic or lymph system involves an extensive network of vessels that passes through almost all our tissues to allow for the movement of a fluid called lymph. Lymph circulates through the body in a similar way to blood.
There are about 600 lymph nodes in the body. These nodes swell in response to infection, due to a build-up of lymph fluid, bacteria, or other organisms and immune system cells.
A person with a throat infection, for example, may feel that their "glands" are swollen. Swollen glands can be felt especially under the jaw, in the armpits, or in the groin area. These are, in fact, not glands but lymph nodes.
The lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system and comprises a network of lymphatic vessels that carry lymph fluid directionally towards the heart. The lymph system transports excess interstitial fluid, fatty acids, and immune cells. It has multiple functions including fluid removal from tissues, absorption and transport of fats, and transportation of white blood cells and antigen-presenting cells to lymph nodes to stimulate immune responses. The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels, lymphoid tissues found throughout the body, and lymphoid organs such as lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and tonsils that are involved in immune defenses.
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter waste from the blood to produce urine. Urine travels from the kidneys down the ureters into the bladder, where it is stored until urination. During urination, urine exits the body through the urethra. The kidneys contain nephrons, which are the functional filtering units of the kidney and include a glomerulus and renal tubule. Nephrons remove waste from the blood via glomerular filtration and reabsorb useful molecules like water before urine is stored in the bladder.
Skeletal muscles cause the skeleton to move at joints
They are attached to skeleton by tendons.
Tendons transmit muscle force to the bone.
Tendons are made of collagen fibres & are very strong & stiff
Lecture 8 the cardiovascular system blood vessels and circulationNada G.Youssef
This document summarizes the cardiovascular system, including blood vessels and circulation. It describes the structure and function of arteries, veins, and capillaries. Arteries carry blood away from the heart, veins carry blood back to the heart, and capillaries allow for gas exchange. It also discusses blood pressure, pulse, circulatory routes including systemic and pulmonary circulation, and fetal circulation.
The document provides details on the structure and function of the lymphatic system. It describes lymph, lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs.
The lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, lymph organs (spleen and thymus), and diffuse lymphoid tissue. Lymph is a clear fluid that is similar to blood plasma but lacks proteins. It is formed from interstitial fluid that leaks from blood capillaries. Lymph vessels carry lymph through the body and lymph nodes before returning it to the bloodstream. The spleen, thymus, tonsils and other lymphoid tissues are involved in immune functions like phagocytosis and lymphocyte production.
The lymphatic system is part of the immune system. It also maintains fluid balance and plays a role in absorbing fats and fat-soluble nutrients.
The lymphatic or lymph system involves an extensive network of vessels that passes through almost all our tissues to allow for the movement of a fluid called lymph. Lymph circulates through the body in a similar way to blood.
There are about 600 lymph nodes in the body. These nodes swell in response to infection, due to a build-up of lymph fluid, bacteria, or other organisms and immune system cells.
A person with a throat infection, for example, may feel that their "glands" are swollen. Swollen glands can be felt especially under the jaw, in the armpits, or in the groin area. These are, in fact, not glands but lymph nodes.
The kidneys are paired organs located retroperitoneally against the posterior abdominal wall. Each kidney filters blood to remove waste and regulate fluid and electrolyte balance, producing urine which drains via ureters into the urinary bladder, a muscular organ in the pelvis. The bladder stores urine then empties via the urethra, a muscular tube running through the pelvis to exit the body.
The Lymphatic System & Lymphoid Organs And Tissuesmsu
The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid tissues that work together to return interstitial fluid to the bloodstream, transport fat from the digestive tract, and help the body fight infection. Lymphatic vessels originate as microscopic capillaries that drain into larger collecting vessels, trunks, and ducts. The right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct are the two main lymphatic trunks that return lymph to the blood circulation. Lymphoid tissues include the lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and bone marrow that contain lymphocytes like T cells and B cells which help the immune system fight pathogens and cancer cells.
The lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphocyte-containing tissues. It collects fluid that leaks from blood vessels, known as lymph, and returns it to the circulatory system. The lymph flows through a network of thin-walled lymphatic vessels and passes through lymph nodes, which contain immune cells. Any foreign substances are filtered out before the lymph rejoins the bloodstream in larger veins in the neck.
The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid organs that work together to drain excess tissue fluid, absorb fatty acids, and recognize and fight foreign pathogens. Lymphatic vessels are made up of a network of lymph capillaries, collecting vessels, and trunks that drain into the subclavian veins or thoracic duct. Lymph nodes filter lymph and initiate immune responses. Major lymphoid organs include the spleen, thymus, tonsils, and clusters of lymphoid tissue in the digestive system that help fight infection and remove old blood cells and platelets.
The best Crypto Marketing Strategies pdfWiseway Tec
The document discusses various strategies for marketing cryptocurrencies and blockchain projects. It begins by defining crypto marketing and outlining key audience segments like investors, tech enthusiasts, and traders. It emphasizes understanding each segment's unique needs to craft targeted campaigns. The document then covers content marketing strategies like blogging and videos, as well as leveraging influencers, community engagement, SEO, and paid advertising. It stresses the importance of compliance with regulations. In conclusion, the document advocates understanding the crypto landscape and employing the right strategies to effectively market products and services in this dynamic industry.
The document summarizes the histology of the cardiovascular system. It describes the main components of the system including arteries, arterioles, capillaries, veins and the heart. It explains that arteries bring blood from the heart to tissues, arterioles divide to form capillary networks that pervade tissues, and veins collect blood from capillaries and return it to the heart. It provides details on the layers of arteries and veins as well as cell types in capillaries and sinusoids. In addition, it outlines the layers of the heart and specialized Purkinje fibers for heart conduction. Finally, it briefly discusses atherosclerotic lesions in arteries.
The document provides an overview of the lymphatic system. It discusses the composition of lymph and describes the lymphatic vessels, lymph circulation, and major lymphatic organs including lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland, reticuloendothelial system, and tonsils. It also outlines the functions of the lymphatic system in transporting fluids, nutrients, and immune cells, and discusses common disorders like lymphadenitis, Hodgkin's disease, splenomegaly, and lymphedema.
The cardiovascular system includes the heart, blood vessels, arteries, capillaries and veins. It has two circulations - pulmonary circulation transports deoxygenated blood to the lungs, while systemic circulation transports oxygenated blood to tissues. The heart has four chambers and four valves that ensure blood flows in one direction. It pumps blood through a network of arteries, capillaries and veins. The circulatory system delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removes waste such as carbon dioxide.
The large intestine, also called the colon, is the final part of the digestive system before waste is excreted. It is around 6 feet long and runs along the lower right side of the abdominal cavity. The colon has four main parts and absorbs water from food waste before it is passed as solid stool and stored in the rectum until excretion. The lining of the colon houses many bacteria that aid in digestion and vitamin production.
The lymphatic system filters and returns fluid from tissues to the bloodstream. It consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid tissues like the spleen and thymus gland. The lymphatic system helps fight infection through lymphocytes and transports fatty acids from the intestines via the lacteals. It is important for fluid balance as excess interstitial fluid is otherwise cause edema if not returned to the bloodstream by the lymphatic vessels.
The lymphatic system helps maintain fluid balance, absorbs fatty acids from the small intestine, and fights infection. It is composed of lymph, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and organs like the spleen and thymus. Lymph forms when interstitial fluid enters lymph capillaries and is transported through increasingly large vessels before draining into the bloodstream via the thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct. Lymph nodes filter lymph and contains lymphocytes that help fight pathogens. The spleen and thymus also aid immunity.
The Urinary System consists of paired kidneys, ureters, a urinary bladder, and a urethra. The kidneys filter waste from the blood to produce urine. Urine travels from the kidneys down the ureters into the bladder, where it is stored until excretion through the urethra. The main functions of the Urinary System are to filter the blood, regulate water and electrolyte balance, and dispose of nitrogenous wastes.
This document provides an overview of the diaphragm, including its origin, insertion, nerve supply, blood supply, actions, positions, relations, openings, and development. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities and is key to respiration. It has three parts of origin and inserts at the central tendon. The phrenic nerve provides motor innervation and thoracic nerves provide some sensory innervation. The document also discusses applied anatomy concepts regarding the diaphragm.
The urinary system includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter the blood to remove wastes and regulate fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance. The kidneys contain nephrons that filter blood in the glomerulus and reabsorb nutrients in the tubules. The remaining fluid becomes urine and drains into the bladder via the ureters. When full, the bladder empties urine through the urethra and out of the body. The urinary system works to regulate blood volume and pressure, maintain electrolyte and acid-base balance, conserve nutrients, and remove wastes and toxins from the body.
El sistema circulatorio humano transporta oxígeno y nutrientes a las células a través de la sangre. La circulación es cerrada, doble y completa, y consta de una circulación mayor a través de la aorta y una circulación menor a través de los pulmones. La sangre fluye desde el corazón a través de las arterias, luego a los capilares y finalmente a las venas de regreso al corazón.
1. The document discusses the structure and position of the heart. It describes the heart as a roughly cone-shaped hollow muscular organ located in the thoracic cavity between the lungs, behind and slightly to the left of the sternum.
2. The heart wall is composed of three layers of tissue - the outer pericardium, middle myocardium, and inner endocardium. The myocardium is the specialized cardiac muscle layer.
3. Internally, the heart is divided by a septum into left and right halves, each with an atrium and ventricle. The right side circulates deoxygenated blood to the lungs, while the left side pumps oxygenated blood to the body
The document summarizes the vascular system, including its components and circulation. It discusses the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. The heart pumps blood through the arteries to tissues via capillaries, where oxygen and nutrients are exchanged. Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through veins. Arteries branch like trees and have elastic tissue, while veins have thinner walls and valves to aid blood flow back to the heart. Capillaries allow molecular exchange and are either continuous or fenestrated. The document also covers circulation types, blood vessel structure, factors in venous return, and applied anatomy of the cardiovascular system.
The urinary system consists of two kidneys, two ureters, one urinary bladder, and one urethra. The kidneys filter wastes from the blood and regulate fluid and electrolyte balance. Each kidney contains over a million nephrons, the functional units that filter blood in the glomerulus and reabsorb useful substances along the renal tubules. The kidneys secrete urine that travels through ureters to the bladder, where it is temporarily stored then expelled through the urethra. The urinary system plays critical roles in homeostasis by filtering wastes and regulating water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance.
The lymphatic system includes lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and lymph fluid that carry excess fluid from tissues and filter pathogens. It is part of the circulatory system and immune system. Lymph fluid is formed from plasma that leaks from blood vessels into tissues and is transported through lymph vessels to lymph nodes, which filter the lymph and contain immune cells. The filtered lymph then returns to the bloodstream through two main lymphatic ducts. Lymphocytes produced in bone marrow and thymus gland are key immune cells that the lymphatic system helps transport and activate against foreign pathogens.
El documento describe las características morfofuncionales del sistema urinario. Explica que el sistema urinario está compuesto por los riñones y las vías urinarias, y que los riñones filtran la sangre, eliminan desechos y secretan hormonas. Además, detalla la estructura y función de los principales componentes del riñón como la corteza, la médula, los túbulos, el corpúsculo renal y el complejo yuxtaglomerular.
The lymphatic system maintains fluid balance, protects the body from infection and disease, and aids in immunity, lipid absorption, and fluid recovery. It is composed of lymphatic capillaries that absorb interstitial fluid and immune cells, lymphatic vessels that contain valves to prevent backflow, and lymph nodes that filter lymph. The lymph eventually drains into the subclavian veins. When lymphatic drainage is impaired, severe edema can occur.
The lymphatic system collects excess tissue fluid and returns it to the bloodstream. Its components include lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymph ducts. The immune system protects the body from foreign organisms using lymphocytes, lymphoid tissue, and lymphoid organs like the spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes. Lymphocytes recognize and destroy pathogens. When activated by antigens, they proliferate into memory and effector cells. Disorders can affect the lymphatic vessels or immune function.
The kidneys are paired organs located retroperitoneally against the posterior abdominal wall. Each kidney filters blood to remove waste and regulate fluid and electrolyte balance, producing urine which drains via ureters into the urinary bladder, a muscular organ in the pelvis. The bladder stores urine then empties via the urethra, a muscular tube running through the pelvis to exit the body.
The Lymphatic System & Lymphoid Organs And Tissuesmsu
The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid tissues that work together to return interstitial fluid to the bloodstream, transport fat from the digestive tract, and help the body fight infection. Lymphatic vessels originate as microscopic capillaries that drain into larger collecting vessels, trunks, and ducts. The right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct are the two main lymphatic trunks that return lymph to the blood circulation. Lymphoid tissues include the lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and bone marrow that contain lymphocytes like T cells and B cells which help the immune system fight pathogens and cancer cells.
The lymphatic system consists of lymph, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphocyte-containing tissues. It collects fluid that leaks from blood vessels, known as lymph, and returns it to the circulatory system. The lymph flows through a network of thin-walled lymphatic vessels and passes through lymph nodes, which contain immune cells. Any foreign substances are filtered out before the lymph rejoins the bloodstream in larger veins in the neck.
The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid organs that work together to drain excess tissue fluid, absorb fatty acids, and recognize and fight foreign pathogens. Lymphatic vessels are made up of a network of lymph capillaries, collecting vessels, and trunks that drain into the subclavian veins or thoracic duct. Lymph nodes filter lymph and initiate immune responses. Major lymphoid organs include the spleen, thymus, tonsils, and clusters of lymphoid tissue in the digestive system that help fight infection and remove old blood cells and platelets.
The best Crypto Marketing Strategies pdfWiseway Tec
The document discusses various strategies for marketing cryptocurrencies and blockchain projects. It begins by defining crypto marketing and outlining key audience segments like investors, tech enthusiasts, and traders. It emphasizes understanding each segment's unique needs to craft targeted campaigns. The document then covers content marketing strategies like blogging and videos, as well as leveraging influencers, community engagement, SEO, and paid advertising. It stresses the importance of compliance with regulations. In conclusion, the document advocates understanding the crypto landscape and employing the right strategies to effectively market products and services in this dynamic industry.
The document summarizes the histology of the cardiovascular system. It describes the main components of the system including arteries, arterioles, capillaries, veins and the heart. It explains that arteries bring blood from the heart to tissues, arterioles divide to form capillary networks that pervade tissues, and veins collect blood from capillaries and return it to the heart. It provides details on the layers of arteries and veins as well as cell types in capillaries and sinusoids. In addition, it outlines the layers of the heart and specialized Purkinje fibers for heart conduction. Finally, it briefly discusses atherosclerotic lesions in arteries.
The document provides an overview of the lymphatic system. It discusses the composition of lymph and describes the lymphatic vessels, lymph circulation, and major lymphatic organs including lymph nodes, spleen, thymus gland, reticuloendothelial system, and tonsils. It also outlines the functions of the lymphatic system in transporting fluids, nutrients, and immune cells, and discusses common disorders like lymphadenitis, Hodgkin's disease, splenomegaly, and lymphedema.
The cardiovascular system includes the heart, blood vessels, arteries, capillaries and veins. It has two circulations - pulmonary circulation transports deoxygenated blood to the lungs, while systemic circulation transports oxygenated blood to tissues. The heart has four chambers and four valves that ensure blood flows in one direction. It pumps blood through a network of arteries, capillaries and veins. The circulatory system delivers oxygen and nutrients to tissues and removes waste such as carbon dioxide.
The large intestine, also called the colon, is the final part of the digestive system before waste is excreted. It is around 6 feet long and runs along the lower right side of the abdominal cavity. The colon has four main parts and absorbs water from food waste before it is passed as solid stool and stored in the rectum until excretion. The lining of the colon houses many bacteria that aid in digestion and vitamin production.
The lymphatic system filters and returns fluid from tissues to the bloodstream. It consists of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid tissues like the spleen and thymus gland. The lymphatic system helps fight infection through lymphocytes and transports fatty acids from the intestines via the lacteals. It is important for fluid balance as excess interstitial fluid is otherwise cause edema if not returned to the bloodstream by the lymphatic vessels.
The lymphatic system helps maintain fluid balance, absorbs fatty acids from the small intestine, and fights infection. It is composed of lymph, lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and organs like the spleen and thymus. Lymph forms when interstitial fluid enters lymph capillaries and is transported through increasingly large vessels before draining into the bloodstream via the thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct. Lymph nodes filter lymph and contains lymphocytes that help fight pathogens. The spleen and thymus also aid immunity.
The Urinary System consists of paired kidneys, ureters, a urinary bladder, and a urethra. The kidneys filter waste from the blood to produce urine. Urine travels from the kidneys down the ureters into the bladder, where it is stored until excretion through the urethra. The main functions of the Urinary System are to filter the blood, regulate water and electrolyte balance, and dispose of nitrogenous wastes.
This document provides an overview of the diaphragm, including its origin, insertion, nerve supply, blood supply, actions, positions, relations, openings, and development. The diaphragm is a sheet of muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities and is key to respiration. It has three parts of origin and inserts at the central tendon. The phrenic nerve provides motor innervation and thoracic nerves provide some sensory innervation. The document also discusses applied anatomy concepts regarding the diaphragm.
The urinary system includes the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter the blood to remove wastes and regulate fluid, electrolyte and acid-base balance. The kidneys contain nephrons that filter blood in the glomerulus and reabsorb nutrients in the tubules. The remaining fluid becomes urine and drains into the bladder via the ureters. When full, the bladder empties urine through the urethra and out of the body. The urinary system works to regulate blood volume and pressure, maintain electrolyte and acid-base balance, conserve nutrients, and remove wastes and toxins from the body.
El sistema circulatorio humano transporta oxígeno y nutrientes a las células a través de la sangre. La circulación es cerrada, doble y completa, y consta de una circulación mayor a través de la aorta y una circulación menor a través de los pulmones. La sangre fluye desde el corazón a través de las arterias, luego a los capilares y finalmente a las venas de regreso al corazón.
1. The document discusses the structure and position of the heart. It describes the heart as a roughly cone-shaped hollow muscular organ located in the thoracic cavity between the lungs, behind and slightly to the left of the sternum.
2. The heart wall is composed of three layers of tissue - the outer pericardium, middle myocardium, and inner endocardium. The myocardium is the specialized cardiac muscle layer.
3. Internally, the heart is divided by a septum into left and right halves, each with an atrium and ventricle. The right side circulates deoxygenated blood to the lungs, while the left side pumps oxygenated blood to the body
The document summarizes the vascular system, including its components and circulation. It discusses the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. The heart pumps blood through the arteries to tissues via capillaries, where oxygen and nutrients are exchanged. Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through veins. Arteries branch like trees and have elastic tissue, while veins have thinner walls and valves to aid blood flow back to the heart. Capillaries allow molecular exchange and are either continuous or fenestrated. The document also covers circulation types, blood vessel structure, factors in venous return, and applied anatomy of the cardiovascular system.
The urinary system consists of two kidneys, two ureters, one urinary bladder, and one urethra. The kidneys filter wastes from the blood and regulate fluid and electrolyte balance. Each kidney contains over a million nephrons, the functional units that filter blood in the glomerulus and reabsorb useful substances along the renal tubules. The kidneys secrete urine that travels through ureters to the bladder, where it is temporarily stored then expelled through the urethra. The urinary system plays critical roles in homeostasis by filtering wastes and regulating water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance.
The lymphatic system includes lymph vessels, lymph nodes, and lymph fluid that carry excess fluid from tissues and filter pathogens. It is part of the circulatory system and immune system. Lymph fluid is formed from plasma that leaks from blood vessels into tissues and is transported through lymph vessels to lymph nodes, which filter the lymph and contain immune cells. The filtered lymph then returns to the bloodstream through two main lymphatic ducts. Lymphocytes produced in bone marrow and thymus gland are key immune cells that the lymphatic system helps transport and activate against foreign pathogens.
El documento describe las características morfofuncionales del sistema urinario. Explica que el sistema urinario está compuesto por los riñones y las vías urinarias, y que los riñones filtran la sangre, eliminan desechos y secretan hormonas. Además, detalla la estructura y función de los principales componentes del riñón como la corteza, la médula, los túbulos, el corpúsculo renal y el complejo yuxtaglomerular.
The lymphatic system maintains fluid balance, protects the body from infection and disease, and aids in immunity, lipid absorption, and fluid recovery. It is composed of lymphatic capillaries that absorb interstitial fluid and immune cells, lymphatic vessels that contain valves to prevent backflow, and lymph nodes that filter lymph. The lymph eventually drains into the subclavian veins. When lymphatic drainage is impaired, severe edema can occur.
The lymphatic system collects excess tissue fluid and returns it to the bloodstream. Its components include lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymph ducts. The immune system protects the body from foreign organisms using lymphocytes, lymphoid tissue, and lymphoid organs like the spleen, thymus, and lymph nodes. Lymphocytes recognize and destroy pathogens. When activated by antigens, they proliferate into memory and effector cells. Disorders can affect the lymphatic vessels or immune function.
1. The immune system has three lines of defense - physical barriers, nonspecific responses, and specific responses.
2. Nonspecific responses include inflammation, fever, phagocytosis by cells like neutrophils and macrophages, natural killer cells, interferon, and the complement system.
3. Specific responses are acquired through exposure to foreign substances and produce protective antibodies and memory cells.
Lymphatic and Immune System for HSSC FBISE - LBISEejaz khichi
This is my very first try to develop "Lymphatic & Immune System" PowerPoint for HSSC FBISE - LBISE XI Year Students, to develop the very Clear and Easiest Concept for the Learners of this Level. The Purpose is just to Benefit the Students as well as my Colleagues who are Teaching Biology at HSSC Level. Few of my Books were published at SSC as well as at HSSC Level in the Past. Again i am here to work for the Students of my Beloved Country PAKISTAN. Hoping that You will Like and Recommend to all those who are Seeking for the Concept Based Knowledge. I will be Glad if Appreciated.
The document summarizes the lymphatic and immune systems. It discusses the organization of the lymphatic system including vessels, lymph nodes, thymus and spleen. It explains how the lymphatic system is related to and works with the circulatory system, and the role of lymphoid tissues and lymphocytes in the body's defense. It provides an introduction to the immune system and its focus on lymphocyte activity.
The lymphatic system includes vessels that convey lymph fluid from tissues to the veins, lymph nodes that filter the lymph, and lymphoid organs like the thymus and spleen. Lymph fluid is filtered from blood capillaries and contains white blood cells that help defend the body. The lymphatic system returns leaked fluid to the bloodstream, transports lipids from the intestines, and produces immune cells in lymph nodes and other lymphoid tissues. Together with circulating white blood cells, the lymphatic system provides the body's defense against pathogens and foreign substances.
The lymphatic system includes vessels that convey lymph fluid from tissues to the veins, transporting excess tissue fluid and absorbed fats and proteins. It also includes lymph nodes and organs like the thymus and spleen that contain lymphoid tissue and lymphocytes. The lymphatic system works with the circulatory system to return leaked fluid to the bloodstream and helps the immune system defend the body by filtering lymph, educating and producing lymphocytes, and transporting lipids.
The lymphatic system transports lymph fluid and assists the immune system. It is composed of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, the spleen, thymus, and lymphatic cells. Lymph fluid is collected from tissues by lymphatic capillaries and transported through a series of vessels, nodes, and ducts where it is filtered for pathogens. The system's immune cells help fight infection and disease. As the body ages, the thymus and immune response decline, making elderly people more susceptible to illness.
The lymphatic system transports lymph fluid and assists the immune system. It is composed of lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, the spleen, thymus, and lymphatic cells. Lymph fluid is collected from tissues by lymphatic capillaries and transported through a series of vessels, nodes, and ducts where it is filtered for pathogens. The system's immune cells help fight infection and disease. As the body ages, the thymus and immune function decline, making elderly people more susceptible to illness.
The document summarizes the lymphatic and immune systems. It describes the main structures of the lymphatic system as lymphatic vessels and lymph nodes. It then explains the main components of the immune system as lymphocytes, lymphoid tissue, and lymphoid organs. Finally, it discusses disorders that can affect these systems such as lymphangitis, mononucleosis, Hodgkin's disease, and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma.
The lymphatic system absorbs excess fluid from tissues and returns it to the circulatory system. It also plays a role in immunity. The lymphatic system is made up of lymph, lymphatic tissue including lymph nodes and spleen, and lymphatic vessels. During inflammation, chemical messengers are released that increase blood flow and permeability, causing redness and swelling. Leukocytes migrate to the inflamed area to phagocytose and destroy pathogens and recruit more immune cells.
L1B. Anatomy and biology of the Immune system-2023 ppt - Copy.pptxdanielmwandu
The document discusses the components of the immune system, including cells, molecules, tissues and organs. It describes how cells of the immune system originate from hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow. The key cells discussed are T cells, B cells, dendritic cells, and macrophages. It also outlines the major immune system organs like the thymus, bone marrow, spleen, lymph nodes, tonsils, skin and mucosa. The innate and adaptive immune responses are briefly introduced.
This document summarizes inflammation and the inflammatory response. It describes inflammation as a protective response intended to eliminate cell injuries. The major steps in the inflammatory response are recognition of the injurious agent, recruitment of leukocytes, removal of the agent, regulation of the response, and resolution. The two major types of inflammation are acute and chronic inflammation. Acute inflammation is short-term while chronic inflammation persists over a longer period of time. Chemical mediators released during inflammation help induce and regulate the inflammatory response.
The lymphatic system transports lymph fluid and assists the immune system. It contains lymphatic vessels that carry lymph and lymph nodes that filter the lymph and check for pathogens. The lymphatic system transports excess interstitial fluid, transports lipids from digestion, and develops and transports immune cells to fight infection and keep the body healthy.
This document summarizes key aspects of lymph nodes and lymphatic flow. It discusses how lymph nodes filter lymph and initiate immune responses when antigens are encountered. The document describes lymph node architecture, including capsules, cortex, medulla, follicles, and germinal centers. It also outlines the functions of lymphatic flow in transporting interstitial fluid, fatty acids, and white blood cells between tissues and lymph nodes.
The lymphatic system is a drainage system that works alongside the venous system to remove tissue fluid from interstitial spaces. Lymph capillaries absorb excess tissue fluid and transport it through lymphatic vessels to lymph nodes, where it is filtered. The filtered lymph then drains into either the thoracic duct or right lymphatic duct and returns to the bloodstream. The lymphatic system removes larger particles from tissues and transports mature lymphocytes throughout the body. Key components include lymph vessels, central lymphoid tissues like bone marrow and thymus, peripheral lymphoid organs like lymph nodes and spleen, and circulating lymphocytes in the bloodstream.
The document provides information about the lymphatic system. It discusses that the lymphatic system is an accessory drainage system to the venous system that transports lymph fluid and absorbs excess interstitial fluid. The main components of the lymphatic system include lymph, lymphatic vessels (capillaries, vessels, trunks, and ducts), lymphatic organs (thymus, lymph nodes, spleen, tonsils), and lymphatic cells. The key functions of the lymphatic system are to reabsorb excess interstitial fluid, transport dietary lipids, and aid in immune responses and lymphocyte development. The document also discusses various lymphatic structures and their features in detail.
The document discusses the lymphatic system. It describes lymph as tissue fluid that enters lymphatic vessels. The main functions of the lymphatic system are to reabsorb excess interstitial fluid and return it to the bloodstream, transport dietary lipids through lacteals in the small intestine, and help with lymphocyte development and the immune response. The key components of the lymphatic system are lymph, lymphatic vessels including capillaries, collecting vessels, trunks and ducts, lymphatic organs including lymph nodes, spleen, thymus and tonsils, and lymphatic cells. The right lymphatic duct and thoracic duct are the two main lymphatic ducts that drain
This document provides information about the anatomy and physiology of the major sense organs - the eye, ear, taste and smell. It contains multiple choice questions about eye anatomy including the structures of the eye like the cornea, muscles and blood vessels. Questions also cover eye physiology topics such as accommodation, myopia and the role of the lens. The sections about ear anatomy and physiology discuss the structures of the inner, middle and outer ear as well as functions like hearing and balance. Taste and smell receptors are described as are the cranial nerves involved in taste.
This document provides an overview of the human sensory systems. It begins by defining sensory receptors and describing their general properties and types. It then discusses the general senses of touch, pain, taste, and smell. For each sense, it describes the sensory receptors, how stimuli are transduced and encoded, and the neural pathways from the receptors to the brain. Touch is mediated by various unencapsulated and encapsulated receptors in the skin. Pain signals travel through the spinal cord or cranial nerves and project to multiple areas in the brainstem and cortex. Taste and smell rely on receptor cells in the tongue and nose that bind to chemicals and project signals through cranial nerves to regions like the thalamus and cortex.
Chapter 26 review - Infections of skin and eyeskevperrino
This chapter review focuses on infections of the skin and eyes, including characteristics, symptoms, and treatment of impetigo, rubella, acne, erysipelas, cutaneous anthrax, varicella-zoster, measles, smallpox, and shingles. It also discusses necrotizing fasciitis, sweat glands and bacteria, folliculitis, blackheads, staphylococcal abscesses, anthropods, trachoma, the differences between cutaneous and inhalation anthrax, candidiasis, and HSV-1.
This chapter review covers several topics related to antibiotics and antimicrobial drugs including how antibiotics work by disrupting protein synthesis, how sulfa drugs function, the mechanisms of various antibiotics like penicillin and cephalosporins, how different drugs treat bacterial, viral, fungal and protozoan infections, the development of antibiotic resistance, and semi-synthetic antibiotics. The review provides an overview of key areas to focus on for the chapter but notes that students are responsible for all reading material.
The document provides an overview of key areas to focus on in reviewing Chapter 25 of the textbook on the digestive system. These include: 1) the anatomy and functions of the tooth, salivary glands, esophagus, stomach, gallbladder, pancreas and intestines; 2) digestive processes like plaquing, digestion by enzymes, and absorption of nutrients and vitamins; and 3) concepts like the enterogastic reflex, Peyer's patches, and histology of the intestinal sections. The review covers anatomical structures and physiological functions throughout the entire gastrointestinal tract.
The document provides a review of key areas to focus on for Chapter 23 which covers the urinary system. It lists topics such as the anatomy of the kidney and nephron, renal blood supply, control of urination, contents and osmolarity of urine, anatomy of the urinary system for both males and females, and functions of structures like the glomerulus, bladder and sphincters. Other areas highlighted include hypertonic vs hypotonic urine, glycosuria, renin, uric acid, aldosterone, and kidney damage.
The document summarizes key topics covered in Chapter 22 of the respiratory system review, including tracing airflow through the nasal passages into the alveoli, identifying the structures of the upper and lower respiratory tract, describing the function of pulmonary surfactant and gas transport, explaining the neural control of breathing and gas laws, and calculating pulmonary volumes and capacities. It also lists disorders of the respiratory system, structures of the lungs such as the bronchial system, muscles of respiration, and the role of atmospheric pressures and the pleural cavity in breathing.
This document provides an overview of microbiology and infectious diseases. It discusses what microbiology is, why it is important, and how microbes can cause infectious diseases. It also covers epidemiology, pathogenesis, host defenses, treatment of infections, and the importance of prevention through public health measures and immunization.
The urinary system consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra. The kidneys filter waste from the blood to form urine and regulate electrolyte and fluid levels. Each kidney contains nephrons, the functional filtering units, composed of a glomerulus and renal tubule. Urine is formed through glomerular filtration, tubular reabsorption of useful substances, and tubular secretion of wastes. The ureters carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder, where it is stored and then expelled through the urethra.
The document summarizes key aspects of the digestive system, including its main divisions and functions. The digestive system breaks down food mechanically and chemically. Mechanical digestion increases surface area through processes like chewing, while chemical digestion involves enzymes that break molecules into simpler compounds. Digestion occurs along the alimentary tube from the mouth to anus, aided by accessory organs like the liver, pancreas and gallbladder. The end products of digestion, like carbohydrates, proteins and fats, are absorbed and used by cells.
The respiratory system includes the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, and diaphragm and intercostal muscles. The lungs are the site of gas exchange between inhaled air and blood in the pulmonary capillaries. Oxygen diffuses into the blood and carbon dioxide diffuses out. The respiratory centers in the medulla and pons control breathing and respond to changes in blood oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. Diseases can disrupt lung function and acid-base balance.
Ch14 - Lymphatic System - Franklin Universitykevperrino
The document summarizes key aspects of the lymphatic system and immunity from Chapter 14 of Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology. It describes the functions of the lymphatic system as returning tissue fluid to maintain blood volume and protecting the body against pathogens. The lymphatic system includes lymph and lymphatic vessels, lymphatic tissues like lymph nodes and the spleen, and organs like the thymus gland. Both innate and adaptive immunity provide protection, with innate immunity providing nonspecific defenses and adaptive immunity providing specific defenses like antibody production that can improve with exposure.
Ch13 - Vascular System - Franklin Universitykevperrino
This document summarizes key aspects of the vascular system, including the structure and function of arteries, veins, and capillaries. It describes the pathways of circulation (pulmonary, systemic, and hepatic portal), as well as factors that regulate and maintain blood pressure. Key terms are defined, such as systolic and diastolic blood pressure, peripheral resistance, and intrinsic vs. nervous mechanisms of blood pressure regulation. Fetal circulation is also summarized.
The document summarizes key aspects of heart anatomy and physiology from the textbook "Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology". It describes the heart's location in the mediastinum surrounded by the lungs and ribs. It also explains the heart's role in pumping blood throughout the body via the cardiovascular system and regulating blood pressure. The summary highlights the heart's four chambers, cardiac cycle, and nervous system regulation of heart rate.
This document summarizes key aspects of blood, including its components and functions. It describes the three main types of blood cells - red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets. Red blood cells contain hemoglobin and carry oxygen, white blood cells help fight infection, and platelets assist in clotting. The document also outlines the clotting process and blood types.
The document summarizes key aspects of the endocrine system from Chapter 10 of Essentials of Anatomy and Physiology. It describes the major endocrine glands, including the pituitary gland, thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, pancreas, adrenal glands, ovaries, and testes. It also explains the basic function and regulation of hormones through negative feedback mechanisms. The passage provides details on specific hormones such as insulin, glucagon, estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone, and how they affect processes like glucose regulation, bone growth, and sexual development.
The document provides an overview of the skeletal system, describing the bones that make up the skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage, upper and lower limbs, and their key features. It discusses the 206 bones in the adult skeleton, their classification into the axial and appendicular skeleton, and surface markings. Specific bones of the skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage, pectoral and pelvic girdles, and upper and lower limbs are then described in detail.
Ch. 21 Infections of the Respiratory System Quiz Showkevperrino
This document contains a series of questions and answers about infections of the respiratory system. It is broken into topics covering the upper respiratory tract, lower respiratory tract, bacteria, viruses, and fungi that can cause respiratory infections. For each topic there are 20 multiple choice questions with dollar amounts from $100 to $500. The answers are revealed after the user submits their choice.
Ch. 21 Infections of the Respiratory Systemkevperrino
This document discusses infections of the respiratory system. It begins by explaining that the respiratory system is highly susceptible to infection due to its constant exposure to pathogens from breathing. The respiratory system is divided into the upper and lower tract, with the upper tract more prone to minor irritations and the lower tract housing more dangerous infections. A variety of bacteria, viruses, and fungi can cause respiratory infections that are easily transmitted between people. Common sites of respiratory infection include the ears, sinuses, throat, and lungs. While defenses like mucus and coughing help clear pathogens, under the right conditions microbes can overcome these defenses and cause illness. The document goes on to provide details on specific respiratory infections like strep throat, scarlet fever,
Ch. 24 quiz-show Infections of Nervous Systemkevperrino
This document appears to be a transcript of questions and answers from a quiz about infections of the nervous system. It includes questions about topics like the nervous system, bacterial diseases, fungal/protozoan diseases, prion diseases, and viral diseases. The questions test knowledge of specific infectious agents, symptoms, transmission methods, and other key details about various neurological infections.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
Executive Directors Chat Leveraging AI for Diversity, Equity, and InclusionTechSoup
Let’s explore the intersection of technology and equity in the final session of our DEI series. Discover how AI tools, like ChatGPT, can be used to support and enhance your nonprofit's DEI initiatives. Participants will gain insights into practical AI applications and get tips for leveraging technology to advance their DEI goals.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
Physiology and chemistry of skin and pigmentation, hairs, scalp, lips and nail, Cleansing cream, Lotions, Face powders, Face packs, Lipsticks, Bath products, soaps and baby product,
Preparation and standardization of the following : Tonic, Bleaches, Dentifrices and Mouth washes & Tooth Pastes, Cosmetics for Nails.
Assessment and Planning in Educational technology.pptxKavitha Krishnan
In an education system, it is understood that assessment is only for the students, but on the other hand, the Assessment of teachers is also an important aspect of the education system that ensures teachers are providing high-quality instruction to students. The assessment process can be used to provide feedback and support for professional development, to inform decisions about teacher retention or promotion, or to evaluate teacher effectiveness for accountability purposes.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
1. 21-1
Chapter 21
Lecture
Outline
See PowerPoint Image Slides
for all figures and tables pre-inserted into
PowerPoint without notes.
Copyright (c) The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
2. 21-2
• Maintain fluid balance
• Protect body from infection and disease
Lymphatic and Immune Systems
3. 21-3
• Immunity
– fluids from all capillary beds are filtered
– immune cells stand ready to respond to foreign cells
or chemicals encountered
• Lipid absorption
– Lacteals in small intestine absorb dietary lipids
• Fluid recovery
– absorbs plasma proteins and fluid (2 to 4 L/day) from
tissues and returns it to the bloodstream
• interference with lymphatic drainage leads to severe edema
Functions of Lymphatic System
4. 21-4
Lymph and Lymphatic Capillaries
• Lymph
– clear, colorless fluid, similar to plasma but
much less protein
• Lymphatic capillaries
– closed at one end
– tethered to surrounding tissue by protein
filaments
– endothelial cells loosely overlapped
• allow bacteria and cells entrance to lymphatic
capillary
• creates valve-like flaps that open when interstitial
fluid pressure is high, and close when it is low
8. 21-8
Route of Lymph Flow
• Lymphatic capillaries
• Collecting vessels: course through many lymph
nodes
• Lymphatic trunks: drain major portions of body
• Collecting ducts :
– right lymphatic duct – receives lymph from R arm, R
side of head and thorax; empties into R subclavian
vein
– thoracic duct - larger and longer, begins as a
prominent sac in abdomen called the cisterna chyli;
receives lymph from below diaphragm, L arm, L side of
head, neck and thorax; empties into L subclavian vein
12. 21-12
Mechanisms of Lymph Flow
• Lymph flows at low pressure and speed
• Moved along by rhythmic contractions of
lymphatic vessels
– stretching of vessels stimulates contraction
• Flow aided by skeletal muscle pump
• Thoracic pump aids flow from abdominal to
thoracic cavity
• Valves prevent backward flow
• Rapidly flowing blood in subclavian veins, draws
lymph into it
• Exercise significantly increases lymphatic return
13. 21-13
Lymphatic Cells
• Natural killer (NK) cells
– responsible for immune surveillance
• T lymphocytes
– mature in thymus
• B lymphocytes
– activation causes proliferation and differentiation into
plasma cells that produce antibodies
• Antigen Presenting Cells
– macrophages (from monocytes)
– dendritic cells (in epidermis, mucous membranes and
lymphatic organs)
– reticular cells (also contribute to stroma of lymph organs)
14. 21-14
Lymphatic Tissue
• Diffuse lymphatic tissue
– lymphocytes in mucous membranes and CT of
many organs
– Mucosa-Associated Lymphatic Tissue (MALT):
prevalent in passages open to exterior
• Lymphatic nodules
– dense oval masses of lymphocytes,
congregate in response to pathogens
– Peyer patches: more permanent congregation,
clusters found at junction of small to large
intestine
15. 21-15
Lymphatic Organs
• At well defined sites; have CT capsules
• Primary lymphatic organs
– site where T and B cells become
immunocompetent
– red bone marrow and thymus
• Secondary lymphatic organs
– immunocompetent cells populate these
tissues
– lymph nodes, tonsils, and spleen
16. 21-16
Lymph Node
• Lymph nodes - only organs that filter lymph
• Fewer efferent vessels, slows flow through node
• Capsule gives off trabeculae, divides node into
compartments containing stroma (reticular CT) and
parenchyma (lymphocytes and APCs) subdivided
into cortex (lymphatic nodules) and medulla
– reticular cells, macrophages phagocytize foreign
matter
– lymphocytes respond to antigens
– lymphatic nodules-germinal centers for B cell
activation
17. 21-17
Lymphadenopathy
• Collective term for all lymph node
diseases
• Lymphadenitis
– swollen, painful node responding to foreign
antigen
• Lymph nodes are common sites for
metastatic cancer
– swollen, firm and usually painless
19. 21-19
Tonsil
• Covered by epithelium
• Pathogens get into tonsillar crypts and
encounter lymphocytes
20. 21-20
Location of Tonsils
• Palatine tonsils
– pair at posterior margin of oral cavity
– most often infected
• Lingual tonsils
– pair at root of tongue
• Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid)
– single tonsil on wall of pharynx
22. 21-22
Thymus
• Capsule gives off trabeculae, divides
parenchyma into lobules of cortex and medulla
• Reticular epithelial cells
– form blood thymus barrier in cortex
• isolates developing T lymphocytes from foreign antigens
– secretes hormones (thymopoietin, thymulin and thymosins)
• to promote development and action of T lymphocytes
• Very large in fetus; after age 14 begins
involution
– in elderly mostly fatty and fibrous tissue
24. 21-24
Spleen
• Parenchyma appears in fresh specimens
as
– red pulp: sinuses filled with erythrocytes
– white pulp: lymphocytes, macrophages;
surrounds small branches of splenic artery
• Functions
– blood production in fetus
– blood reservoir
– RBC disposal
– immune reactions: filters blood, quick to
detect antigens
26. 21-26
Defenses Against Pathogens
• Nonspecific defenses - broadly effective, no
prior exposure
– first line of defense
• external barriers
– second line of defense
• phagocytic cells, antimicrobial proteins,
inflammation and fever
• Specific defense - results from prior exposure,
protects against only a particular pathogen
– third line of defense
• immune system
27. 21-27
External Barriers
• Skin
– toughness of keratin
– dry and nutrient-poor
– defensins: peptides, from neutrophils attack microbes
– lactic acid (acid mantle) is a component of perspiration
• Mucous membranes
– stickiness of mucus
– lysozyme: enzyme destroys bacterial cell walls
• Subepithelial areolar tissue
– tissue gel: viscous barrier of hyaluronic acid
• hyaluronidase: enzyme used by pathogens to spread
31. 21-31
Basophils
• Aid mobility and action of WBC’s by
release of
– histamine (vasodilator)
∀↑ blood flow to infected tissue
– heparin (anticoagulant)
• prevents immobilization of phagocytes
32. 21-32
Monocytes
• Circulating precursors to macrophages
• Specialized macrophages found in specific
localities
– dendritic cells
• epidermis, oral mucosa, esophagus, vagina, and
lymphatic organs
– microglia (CNS)
– alveolar macrophages (lungs)
– hepatic macrophages (liver)
35. 21-35
Interferons
• Secreted by certain cells invaded by
viruses
– generalized protection
– diffuse to neighboring cells and stimulate
them to produce antiviral proteins
– activate natural killer cells and macrophages
• destroy infected host cells
• stimulate destruction of cancer cells
36. 21-36
Complement System
• Complement (C) proteins in blood that
must be activated by pathogens
• Pathways of complement activation: C3
split into C3a and C3b
– classical pathway
• requires antibody; specific immunity
– alternate pathway
• nonspecific immunity
– lectin pathway
• nonspecific immunity
37. 21-37
Complement System
• Mechanisms of action
– enhanced inflammation
– phagocytosis
• promoted by opsonization
– cytolysis
• membrane attack complex forms on target cell
– immune clearance
• RBCs carry Ag-Ab complexes to macrophages in
liver and spleen
40. 21-40
Immune Surveillance
• NK cells
– destroy bacteria, transplanted cells, cells
infected by viruses, and cancer cells
• release perforins and granzymes
42. 21-42
Inflammation
• Defensive response to tissue injury
1. limits spread of pathogens, then
destroys them
2. removes debris
3. initiates tissue repair
• Cytokines
– small proteins regulate inflammation
and immunity; include
• interferons, interleukins, tumor necrosis
factor, and chemotactic factors
43. 21-43
Inflammation
• Suffix -itis denotes inflammation of
specific organs
• Cardinal signs
–redness (erythema) caused by hyperemia (↑
blood flow)
–swelling (edema) caused by ↑ capillary
permeability and filtration
–heat caused by hyperemia
–pain caused by inflammatory chemicals
(bradykinin, prostaglandins) secreted by
damaged cells, pressure on nerves
44. 21-44
Inflammation
• Three major processes
1. mobilization of body defenses
2. containment and destruction of pathogens
3. tissue clean-up and repair
45. 21-45
Mobilization of Defenses
• Kinins, histamine, and leukotrienes are secreted
by damaged cells, basophils and mast cells
– stimulates vasodilation that leads to hyperemia
• causes redness and heat
∀ ↑ local metabolic rate, promotes cell multiplication and
healing
• dilutes toxins, provides O2, nutrients, waste removal
– stimulates ↑ permeability of blood capillaries
• allows blood cells, plasma proteins (antibodies, complement
proteins, fibrinogen) into tissue
• clotting sequesters bacteria, forms scaffold for tissue repair
46. 21-46
Mobilization of Defenses
• Leukocyte
Deployment
– margination
• selectins cause
leukocytes to
adhere to blood
vessel walls
– diapedesis
(emigration)
• leukocytes
squeeze between
endothelial cells
into tissue space
47. 21-47
Containment and Destruction of
Pathogens
• Fibrinogen now in tissue clots, trapping pathogens
• Heparin prevents clotting at site of injury
– pathogens are in a fluid pocket surrounded by clot
• Chemotaxis
– leukocytes are attracted to chemotactic chemicals
• Neutrophils are quickest to respond
– phagocytosis
– respiratory burst
– secrete cytokines for recruitment of macrophages and
neutrophils
– macrophages and T cells secrete colony-stimulating
factor to stimulate leukopoiesis
48. 21-48
Tissue Cleanup
• Monocytes the primary agents of cleanup
arrive in 8 to 12 hours, become
macrophages,
• Edema ↓ venous flow, ↑ lymphatic flow
that favors removal of bacteria and debris
• Formation of pus
– mixture of tissue fluid, cellular debris, dying
neutrophils and microbes
49. 21-49
Tissue Repair
• Blood platelets and endothelial cells in
injured area secrete a cytokine, PDGF, that
stimulates fibroblasts to multiply and
synthesize collagen
• Facilitated by hyperemia that provides
materials needed and heat that increases
metabolism
• Fibrin clot may provide a scaffold for
repair
• Pain limits use of body part allowing for
repair
50. 21-50
Fever
• Defense mechanism: does more good than harm
– promotes interferon activity
– accelerating metabolic rate and tissue repair
– inhibiting pathogen reproduction
• A cytokine, interleukin 1, called a pyrogen
– secreted by macrophages, stimulates anterior
hypothalamus to secrete PGE which resets body
thermostat higher
> 105°F may cause delirium, 111°F- 115°F, coma-death
• Stages of fever
– onset, stadium, defervescence
53. 21-53
Passive and Active Immunity
• Natural active immunity (produces memory cells)
– production of one’s own antibodies or T cells as a
result of infection or natural exposure to antigen
• Artificial active immunity (produces memory cells)
– production of one’s own antibodies or T cells as a
result of vaccination
• Natural passive immunity (through placenta, milk)
– temporary, fetus acquires antibodies from mother
• Artificial passive immunity (snakebite, rabies,
tetanus)
– temporary, injection of immune serum (antibodies)
54. 21-54
Antigens
• Trigger an immune response
• Complex molecules
– > 10,000 amu, unique structures
– proteins, polysaccharides, glycoproteins,
glycolipids
• Epitopes (antigenic determinants)
– stimulate immune responses
• Haptens
– too small, host macromolecule must bind to
them to stimulate initial immune response
56. 21-56
Life Cycle of T cells
• Stem cells in red bone marrow
• Mature in thymus
– thymosins stimulate maturing T cells to
produce antigen receptors
– immunocompetent T cell has antigen
receptors in place
• Deployment
– naïve T cells colonize lymphatic tissue and
organs
57. 21-57
Negative Selection of T cells
• Immunocompetent T cells must be able to
1. bind to RE cell
2. not react to self antigens
• Failure results in negative selection via
– clonal deletion: destruction of offending T
cells
– anergy: inactive state, alive but unresponsive
• Leaves body in a state of self-tolerance
• Only 2% of T cells succeed
58. 21-58
Positive Selection of T cells
• Immunocompetent T cells that are able to
1. bind to MHC on RE cell
2. not react to self antigens
divide rapidly and form clones of T cells
with identical receptors for a specific
antigen
– these cells have not encountered target
antigens, constitute naïve lymphocyte pool
• Deployment - cells ready to leave thymus
59. 21-59
B Lymphocytes (B cells)
• Sites of development
– other fetal stem cells remain in bone marrow
• B cell selection
– B cells should not react to self antigens
• or suffer clonal deletion or anergy
• Self-tolerant B cells form B cell clones
– synthesize antigen receptors, divide rapidly,
produce immunocompetent clones
60. 21-60
Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs)
• Function depends on major
histocompatability complex (MHC) proteins
– act as cell ID tag
• B cells and macrophages, display antigens
to T cells
63. 21-63
Cellular Immunity
• T cells attack foreign cells and diseased
host cells; memory of Ag
• Three classes of T cells
1. Cytotoxic T cells (Tc cells) carry out attack
2. Helper T cells: help promote Tc cell and B
cell action and nonspecific defense
mechanisms
3. Memory T cells: provide immunity from
future exposure to antigen
64. 21-64
TC cell Recognition
• Antigen presentation
– MHC-I proteins
• found on nearly all nucleated body cells
• display peptides produced by host cells
• TC cell activation
1. binding of cytotoxic T cells (CD8 cells) to
abnormal peptides on MHC-I and
2. costimulation via a cytokine
– triggers clonal selection: clone of identical T
cells against cells with same epitope
65. 21-65
TH cell Recognition
• Antigen presentation
–role of MHC-II proteins
• found only on antigen presenting cells
• display only foreign antigens
• stimulate helper T cells (CD4 cells)
66. 21-66
TH cell Activation
1. binding of helper T cells (CD4 cells) to
epitope displayed on MHC-II of APC
2. costimulation via a cytokine
3. triggers clonal selection
68. 21-68
Attack Phase: Role of Helper T Cells
• Secretes interleukins
– attract neutrophils,
NK cells,
macrophages
– stimulate
phagocytosis
– stimulate T and B cell
mitosis and
maturation
• Coordinate humoral
and cellular
immunity
69. 21-69
Attack Phase: Cytotoxic T Cells
• Only T cells directly attack enemy
cells
• Lethal hit mechanism
– docks on cell with antigen-MHC-I protein
complex
1. releases perforin, granzymes - kills target cell
2. interferons - decrease viral replication and
activates macrophages
3. tumor necrosis factor: kills cancer cells
72. 21-72
Memory
• Memory T cells
– following clonal selection some T cells
become memory cells
– long-lived; in higher numbers than naïve cells
• T cell recall response
– upon reexposure to same pathogen, memory
cells launch a quick attack
73. 21-73
Humoral Immunity
• Recognition
– B cell receptors bind antigen, take in and
digest antigen then display epitopes on its
MHC-II protein
– After costimulation by TH cell, divide
repeatedly, differentiate into plasma cells,
produce antibodies specific to that antigen
• Attack
– antibodies bind to antigen, render it harmless,
‘tag it’ for destruction
• Memory
– some B cells differentiate into memory cells
77. 21-77
Antibody Classes
• By amino acid sequences of C region of
antibody
• IgA: monomer in plasma; dimer in mucus, saliva, tears,
milk, intestinal secretions, prevents adherence to
epithelia
• IgD: monomer; B cell membrane antigen receptor
• IgE: monomer; on mast cells; stimulates release of
histamines, attracts eosinophils; immediate
hypersensitivity reactions
• IgG: monomer; 80% circulating, crosses placenta to
fetus, 2° immune response, complement fixation
• IgM: pentamer, 10% in plasma, 1° immune response,
agglutination, complement fixation
78. 21-78
Antibody Diversity
• Immune system capable of as many as 1
trillion different antibodies
• Somatic recombination
– DNA segments shuffled and form new
combinations of base sequences to produce
antibody genes
• Somatic hypermutation
– B cells in lymph nodules rapidly mutate
creating new sequences
79. 21-79
Humoral Immunity - Attack
• Neutralization
– antibodies mask pathogenic region of antigen
• Complement fixation
– antigen binds to IgM or IgG, antibody changes shape,
initiates complement binding; primary defense against
foreign cells, bacteria
• Agglutination
– antibody has 2-10 binding sites; binds to multiple
enemy cells immobilizing them
• Precipitation
– antibody binds antigen molecules (not cells); creates
antigen-antibody complex that precipitates,
phagocytized by eosinophil
82. 21-82
Hypersensitivity (Allergy)
• Excessive immune reaction against antigens
that most people tolerate - allergens
• Type I Antibody mediated (IgE), acute reaction
• Type II Antibody mediated (IgG, IgM), subacute
• Type III Antibody mediated (IgG, IgM), subacute
• Type IV Cell mediated, delayed
83. 21-83
Type I (acute) Hypersensitivity
• Anaphylaxis
– occurs in sensitized people
– allergen caps IgE on mast cells, basophils
– release inflammatory chemicals
• Asthma
– most common chronic illness in children
– inhaled allergens, histamines, bronchiole
constriction
• Anaphylactic shock
– bronchiole constriction, dyspnea, vasodilation,
shock, death; treatment- epinephrine
84. 21-84
Type II Hypersensitivity
(Antibody-Dependent Cytotoxic)
• IgG or IgM
– binds to antigens on cells; complement
activation and lyses or opsonization
– may bind to cell surface receptors and either
interferes with function or over-stimulate cell
85. 21-85
Type III Hypersensitivity
(Immune Complex)
• IgG or IgM form widespread antigen-
antibody complexes
• Complexes precipitate and trigger intense
inflammation
– involved in acute glomerulonephritis and in
systemic lupus erythematosus
86. 21-86
Type IV Hypersensitivity
(Delayed)
• 12 to 72 hour delay
• APC’s in lymph nodes display antigens to
helper T cells, which secrete interferon
and cytokines that activate cytotoxic T
cells and macrophages
• Cosmetic and poison ivy allergies -
haptens
• TB skin test
87. 21-87
Autoimmune Diseases
• Failure of self tolerance
– cross-reactivity
– abnormal exposure of self-antigens
– changes in structure of self-antigens
• Production of autoantibodies
89. 21-89
• AIDS
– HIV structure (next slide)
– invades helper T cells, macrophages and
dendritic cells by “tricking” them to internalize
viruses by receptor mediated endocytosis
– reverse transcriptase (retrovirus), uses viral
RNA as template to synthesize DNA, new DNA
inserted into host cell DNA, may be dormant
for months to years
Immunodeficiency Diseases
91. 21-91
AIDS
• Signs and symptoms
– early symptoms: flulike chills and fever
– progresses to night sweats, fatigue, headache,
extreme weight loss, lymphadenitis
– normal TH count is 600 to 1,200 cells/µL of
blood but in AIDS it is < 200 cells/µL
• person susceptible to opportunistic infections
(Toxoplasma, Pneumocystitis, herpes simplex
virus, CMV or TB)
– thrush: white patches on mucous membranes
– Kaposi sarcoma: cancer originates in endothelial
cells of blood vessels causes purple lesions in skin
93. 21-93
HIV Transmission
• Through blood, semen, vaginal secretions,
breast milk, or across the placenta
• Most common means of transmission
– sexual intercourse (vaginal, anal, oral)
– contaminated blood products
– contaminated needles
• Not transmitted by casual contact
• Undamaged latex condom is an effective
barrier to HIV, especially with spermicide
nonoxynol-9
94. 21-94
Treatment Strategies
• Prevent binding to CD4 proteins of TH cells
• Disrupt reverse transcriptase, inhibit assembly
of new viruses or their release from host cells
• Medications
– none can eliminate HIV, all have serious side-effects
– HIV develops resistance, meds used in combination
– AZT azidothymidine
• first anti-HIV drug, inhibits reverse transcriptase
– Protease inhibitors
• inhibit enzymes HIV needs to replicate
– now more than 16 anti-HIV drugs