The central nervous system is comprised of the brain and spinal cord. The brain controls bodily functions and awareness through different regions like the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem. The cerebrum controls complex brain functions. The cerebellum coordinates movement and balance. The brain stem regulates vital functions like breathing and heart rate. The spinal cord connects the brain to the body and enables reflexes. The peripheral nervous system includes nerves throughout the body. The autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary functions through the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of nervous tissue, which extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column. It encloses the central canal of the spinal cord, which contains cerebrospinal fluid. The brain and spinal cord together make up the central nervous system (CNS). In humans, the spinal cord begins at the occipital bone, passing through the foramen magnum and entering the spinal canal at the beginning of the cervical vertebrae.
The spinal cord is a long, thin, tubular structure made up of nervous tissue, which extends from the medulla oblongata in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column. It encloses the central canal of the spinal cord, which contains cerebrospinal fluid. The brain and spinal cord together make up the central nervous system (CNS). In humans, the spinal cord begins at the occipital bone, passing through the foramen magnum and entering the spinal canal at the beginning of the cervical vertebrae.
The detail description about peripheral nervous system, neuron, its covering, types of neuron, synapses, spinal nerves, plexus, and more about cranial nerves at last not the least about somatic and autonomic nervous system. you may also find the information about types of peripheral nervous system in detail.
“The right half of the brain controls the left half of the body. This means that only left handed people are in their right mind.”
Made up of brain and spinal cordActs as body’s control center, coordinates body’s activitiesImpulses travel through the neurons in your body to reach the brainCentral Nervous System is yellow in this diagram.
Made up of all the nerves that carry messages to and from the central nervous system.Similar to telephone wires that connect all of our houses in the communityCentral Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System work together to make rapid changes in your body in response to stimuli.Peripheral Nervous System is green in this diagram.
Somatic Nervous SystemRelay information between skin, skeletal muscles and central nervous systemYou consciously control this pathway by deciding whether or not to move muscles (except reflexes)Reflexes: Automatic response to stimulusAutonomic Nervous SystemRelay information from central nervous system to organsInvoluntary: You do not consciously control theseSympathetic Nervous System: controls in times of stress, such as the flight or fight responseParasympathetic Nervous System: controls body in times of rest
The detail description about peripheral nervous system, neuron, its covering, types of neuron, synapses, spinal nerves, plexus, and more about cranial nerves at last not the least about somatic and autonomic nervous system. you may also find the information about types of peripheral nervous system in detail.
“The right half of the brain controls the left half of the body. This means that only left handed people are in their right mind.”
Made up of brain and spinal cordActs as body’s control center, coordinates body’s activitiesImpulses travel through the neurons in your body to reach the brainCentral Nervous System is yellow in this diagram.
Made up of all the nerves that carry messages to and from the central nervous system.Similar to telephone wires that connect all of our houses in the communityCentral Nervous System and Peripheral Nervous System work together to make rapid changes in your body in response to stimuli.Peripheral Nervous System is green in this diagram.
Somatic Nervous SystemRelay information between skin, skeletal muscles and central nervous systemYou consciously control this pathway by deciding whether or not to move muscles (except reflexes)Reflexes: Automatic response to stimulusAutonomic Nervous SystemRelay information from central nervous system to organsInvoluntary: You do not consciously control theseSympathetic Nervous System: controls in times of stress, such as the flight or fight responseParasympathetic Nervous System: controls body in times of rest
This slide talks about neuroplasticity, the central nervous system, the brain and its structure, the spinal cord, autonomic nervous system, its functions, nervous system and learning, neurotransmitters, working of neurotransmitters, classification, types of neurotransmitters, neurotransmitters in learning and limbic system in learning.
Hello everybody , Today we all will learn about OUR NERVOUS SYSTEM.
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Rutvi Singh
The nervous system of vertebrates (including humans) is divided into the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS). The (CNS) is the major division, and consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The spinal canal contains the spinal cord, while the cranial cavity contains the brain.
Here's a brief introduction to control and coordination class 10 science:
"Control and coordination are fundamental processes in living organisms that ensure proper functioning and response to stimuli. In simpler terms, control refers to the regulation of various activities within an organism, while coordination involves the harmonious integration of these activities. In humans and many other animals, control and coordination are primarily carried out by the nervous system and the endocrine system. The nervous system allows for rapid responses to stimuli through nerve impulses, while the endocrine system regulates physiological processes using chemical messengers called hormones. Together, these systems ensure that organisms can adapt to changes in their environment, maintain internal balance (homeostasis), and carry out essential functions for survival and well-being."
For more information, visit- www.vavaclasses.com
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
What is greenhouse gasses and how many gasses are there to affect the Earth.moosaasad1975
What are greenhouse gasses how they affect the earth and its environment what is the future of the environment and earth how the weather and the climate effects.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
THE IMPORTANCE OF MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE SAMPLE RETURN.Sérgio Sacani
The return of a sample of near-surface atmosphere from Mars would facilitate answers to several first-order science questions surrounding the formation and evolution of the planet. One of the important aspects of terrestrial planet formation in general is the role that primary atmospheres played in influencing the chemistry and structure of the planets and their antecedents. Studies of the martian atmosphere can be used to investigate the role of a primary atmosphere in its history. Atmosphere samples would also inform our understanding of the near-surface chemistry of the planet, and ultimately the prospects for life. High-precision isotopic analyses of constituent gases are needed to address these questions, requiring that the analyses are made on returned samples rather than in situ.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Observation of Io’s Resurfacing via Plume Deposition Using Ground-based Adapt...Sérgio Sacani
Since volcanic activity was first discovered on Io from Voyager images in 1979, changes
on Io’s surface have been monitored from both spacecraft and ground-based telescopes.
Here, we present the highest spatial resolution images of Io ever obtained from a groundbased telescope. These images, acquired by the SHARK-VIS instrument on the Large
Binocular Telescope, show evidence of a major resurfacing event on Io’s trailing hemisphere. When compared to the most recent spacecraft images, the SHARK-VIS images
show that a plume deposit from a powerful eruption at Pillan Patera has covered part
of the long-lived Pele plume deposit. Although this type of resurfacing event may be common on Io, few have been detected due to the rarity of spacecraft visits and the previously low spatial resolution available from Earth-based telescopes. The SHARK-VIS instrument ushers in a new era of high resolution imaging of Io’s surface using adaptive
optics at visible wavelengths.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
2. CONTENTS
Nervous system
Central nervous system
Division of CNS
Brain and its parts
Spinal cord
Other structures in the brain
PNS
ANS
Physiology of ANS
3. NERVOUS SYSTEM
The nervous system is divided into
1. CNS consist of Brain & Spinal cord.
2. PNS consisting of:
a. 31 pairs of cranial nerves arising from spinal cord
b. 12 pairs of cranial nerves arising from brain.
c. Autonomic nervous system:
i) Sympathetic nervous system
ii) Parasympathetic nervous system
4. The central nervous system (CNS) is comprised of the brain and spinal cord.
The CNS receives sensory information from the nervous system and controls the body's responses.
The brain plays a central role in the control of most bodily functions, including awareness, movements,
sensations, thoughts, speech, and memory.
Some reflex movements can occur via spinal cord pathways without the participation of brain
structures. The spinal cord is connected to a section of the brain called the brainstem and runs through
the spinal canal.
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
6. The Brain
• The brain is the control center of the body
• It is about 2% of your body weight and uses 20% of your body’s oxygen.
• The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord.
• The brain constitutes about one-fiftieth of the body weight and lies within the
cranial cavity.
• The brain parts are
– Cerebrum
– The brain stem (midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata)
– Cerebellum
• The average brain weight of the adult male was 1336 gm,
• for the adult female 1198 gr.
• With increasing age, brain weight decreases by 2.7 gr in males, and by
2.2 gr in females per year.
7. • Cerebrum:
• This is the largest part of the brain and it occupies the anterior and middle cranial fossae.
• Gray Matter – Absenceof myelin in masses of neurons accounts for thegray matter of the brain – Cerebral
Cortex.
• White Matter - Myelinated neurons gives neurons a white appearance – inner layerof cerebrum
• The cerebral cortex is the outer covering of gray matter over the hemispheres.
• Largest partof the brain: Learning and Senses
• 2 hemispheres- Right and Left
• Connected by the Corpus Callosum
• Right side controls- left side
• Left side controls – right side of body
• Each hemisphere of the cerebrum is divided into
lobes which take the names of the bones of the cranium under which they lie:
• frontal
• parietal
• temporal
• Occipital
Cerebral cortex
8. FUNCTIONS OF THE CEREBRUM
Frontal Lobe- associated with reasoning, planning, parts of
speech, movement, emotions, and problem solving
Parietal Lobe- associated with movement, orientation,
recognition, perception of stimuli
Occipital Lobe- associated with visual processing
Temporal Lobe- associated with perception and recognition of
auditory stimuli, memory, and speech
9. CEREBELLUM
The cerebellum is situated behind the pons and immediately below the posterior portion of the
cerebrum
It is ovoid in shape and has two hemispheres, separated by a narrow median strip called the
vermis.
Second largest
located below the cerebrum at back of skull
This part is responsible forthe balance and muscle
coordination
10. Functions of cerebellum
The cerebellum is concerned with the coordination of voluntary muscular
movement, posture and balance. It coordinates activities associated with the
maintenance of the balance and equilibrium of the body.
It is also involved in certain cognitive functions, such as language.
The cerebellum plays a major role in adapting and fine- tuning motor programs to
make accurate movements through a trial-and-error process.
Damage to the cerebellum results in clumsy uncoordinated muscular movement,
staggering gait and inability to carry out smooth, steady, precise movements.
11. THE BRAIN STEM (midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata)
Brain stem is the stem-like part of the base of the brain that is connected to the spinal cord.
This structure is responsible for basic vital life functions such as breathing, heartbeat, and
blood pressure.
Medulla oblongata directly controls breathing, blood flow, and other essential functions.
Connects the brain to spinal cord
The Two Regions act as “switchboard”
Medulla Oblongata – Controls heart rate, breathing rate, and
flow of blood through the blood vessels.
Pons – Relays signals between the cerebrumand thecerebellum
12. SPINAL CORD
Link between brain and rest of body (PNS)
31 pairs of spinal nerves
Spinal cord is continuous above with the medulla oblongata.
It is a long, thin bundle of nervous tissue.
It is approximately 45 cm long in an adult male, and is about the thickness of
the little finger.
The spinal cord receives and transmits electric signals throughout the entire
body & then back to the brain.
The white matter tracts in the spinal cord are highways for nerve impulse
propagation. Sensory input travels along these tracts toward the brain (afferent
neurons), and motor output travels from the brain along these tracts toward
skeletal muscles and other effector tissues (efferent neurons).
The gray matter of the spinal cord receives and integrates incoming and
outgoing information.
13. The spinal cord enables us to do the things automatically.
This automatic action is called as Reflex action.
For e.g., when you touch a hot object, you immediately withdrawn your hand.
This action does not involve your brain because you do not think at all whether you avoid
the hot object or not.
In a Reflex action, the nerve impulses take a special pathway called as Reflex arc.
A reflex is rapid automatic response to the environment that happened without action of the
brain.
They can be movement or develop through memory.
The brain remembers how to respond to certain signals or situations.
This is called as conditional reflex.
14. THALAMUS
Receive messages from sensory receptors; relays information to proper
regions of cerebrum
HYPOTHALAMUS
Regulates hunger, thirst, fatigue, anger, etc…
Control of pituitary forendocrine function
Other Structures inside the Brain
Pons
Pituitary gland
Hypothalamus
Cerebrum
Medulla oblongata Spinal cord
Cerebellum
Thalamus
Pineal
gland
Section 35-3
16. AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM
CNS makes person aware of external environment.
Many activities which do not reach the consciousness of person are regulated and controlled
by the system called as ANS.
Thus ANS controls and regulate the involuntary functions.
Called as Autonomic because it is not under the control of will.
Division of ANS
1. Sympathetic nervous system
Enables the individual to adjust to stress .
It originates in the thoracic and the lumbar region of the spinal cord.
1. Parasympathetic nervous system
Participate in tissue building.
It originates in the cranial and sacral region of the spinal cord.
17. PHYSIOLOGY OF ANS
Sympathetic stimulation Organ Parasympathetic stimulation
Dilate the pupils Eye Constrict the pupils
Bronchodilation Bronchi Bronchoconstriction
Increase heart rate Heart Decrease the heart rate
Vasodilation Blood vessels Vasoconstriction
Relaxation Smooth muscle Increases the movement
Increase the sweating Sweat glands
Decrease the salivation Salivary gland Increase the salivation
Inhibit secretion Gastric gland Increase secretion
Kidney
Decrease urine flow Blood flow
Relaxation of muscle wall Urinary bladder Constriction of muscle wall
Increase Metabolic effect
Contraction of uterine
muscles
Sex organs Vasodilation and erection