All living things are made of one or more cells. Cells are the basic units of life and contain organelles that allow chemical reactions to occur. Key organelles include the nucleus, which contains DNA; mitochondria, which generate energy; and the cell membrane, which encloses the cell. Robert Hooke first observed cells in 1665 using a microscope. The cell theory, developed in 1839, states that cells are the fundamental unit of life and all cells come from pre-existing cells.

3. - smallest unit of life that can replicate independently.
- "building blocks of life".
- It is the basic structural, functional and biological unit of all
known living organisms.
- discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.
-In 1839, The theory about cell was developed. It was developed
by Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann.
- Cell comes from the Latin word “CELLA” , meaning "small
room".

4. Which States that :
- all organisms are composed of one or more cells.
- That all cells come from preexisting cells,
- that vital functions of an organism occur within cells,
- and that all cells contain the hereditary information
necessary for regulating cell functions and for
transmitting information to the next generation of cells.

6. • produce the first microscope .
• first creator of a compound
microscope, around the 1590's.
• Also credited with the invention of the
first telescope

7. - First to study the cell and examined it
under the microsope.
- An English natural philosopher,
architect, polymath and scientist.
- Discovered empty spaces contained
by walls, and named them “PORES”
or most comon called as “CELLS” .
- He gained credit for discovering the
building blocks of all life.
- Hooke calculated the number of cells
in a cubic inch to be 1,259,712,000.

8. •discovered the nucleus in cell as
the central part of the cell.
•He is a Scottish botanist best
known for his description of the
natural continuous motion of minute
particles in solution, which came to
be called ”brownian movement”.

9. -The nucleus directs all activity in the cell.
-It is the largest organelle in a cell.
- It also controls the growth and reproduction of the cell.
-The nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear membrane that protects it from other parts of
the cell. It also contains a nucleolus, which is a secondary organelle.
It also contains the blueprints of the cell in the chromatin inside the nucleus.
-The chromatin is like long strands in the nucleus that carry DNA and proteins.
-The nucleus provides a site for genetic transcription that is segregated from the location
of translation in the cytoplasm, allowing levels of gene regulation that are not available
to prokaryotes.
-The main function of the cell nucleus is to control gene expression and mediate the
replication of DNA during the cell cycle.

10. - He discovered some “ ANIMALCULES ” in
water using his microscope. Some of the
small animalcules are now known as “
BACTERIA ”.
- A microscopic or minute
organism, such as an amoeba or
paramecium, usually considered to be an
animal.

11. • Dicovered that cells have a
living substance which he
named as “ SARCODE “ then
was later renamed as
“PROTOPLASM” by Hugo von
Mohl in 1850.
• He was a French biologist
born in Tours.
• Known for his research of
protozoans and other
invertebrates and also largely
known for his work with
microscopic animal life.
.

12. -The material or cells of which all living things are built up. Each is
a jelly-like substance, the former being the nucleus of plants and
the latter of animals.
- Protoplasm is not a simple but a complicated structure,
sometimes called a “colony of plasts,” or nuclear granules.
(Greek, proto-plasma, the first model; proto-sarkodes, the first
flesh-like entity.)

13. - He gave the protoplasm to the component of the cell.
- He was a Czech anatomist and physiologist.
- He was one of the best known scientists of his time.
- In 1839, he coined the term “protoplasm” for the
fluid substance of a cell.
- He is best known for his discoveries of Purkinje cells
and Purkinje fibres. Purkinje cells are large neurons
with many branching dendrites found in the
cerebellum.
-He was the first to use a microtome to make wafer
thin slices of tissue for microscopic examination and
was among the first to use an improved version of the
compound microscope.
.

14. - He established the protoplasm
concept .
- He recognized under the name of
primordial utricle the protoplasmic
lining of the vacuolated cell.
- He first described the behaviour of
the protoplasm in cell division.
- first explained the true nature of
pits, and showed the cellular origin of
vessels and of fibrous cells . He is
considered as the true founder of the
cell theory.

15. • a german botanist , examined and
discovered that plants parts are made of
basic structure of cell.
• He wrote Contributions to
Phytogenesis (1838), in which he stated
that the different parts of the plant
organism are composed of cells.
•He also recognized the importance of
the cell nucleus, discovered in 1831 by
the Scottish botanist Robert Brown and
sensed its connection with cell.

16. - a german zoologist , examined and
discovered that animals parts are made
of cells too.
- His contributions to biology include the
development of cell theory , the
discovery of schwann cells in
the periphial nervous system , the
discovery and study of pepsin , the
discovery of the organic nature of yeast ,
and the invention of the
term ”metabolism”.

17. - a german physician , stated that all living cells
come from pre-existing living cells and there is no
spontaneous generation of new living cells.
- known for his advancement of public health.
-He is known as "the father of modern pathology"
because his work helped to discredit humorism,
bringing more science to medicine.
- He is also considered one of the founders of social
medicine.
-His most widely known scientific contribution is
his cell theory , which built on the work of theodor
Schwann . He is cited as the first to
recognize Leukemia cells.
- Virchow’s work encapsulated in the
epigram Omnis cellula e cellula ("Every cell
originates from another existing cell like it."), which
he published in 1858.

18. All living things are made of one or more cells.
Cells are the basic units of life and all te chemical reactions of
life occur in cells.
All cells arise from pre-existing cells through cell division.

19. - Reproductive cells
- Skincells
- Muscle cells
- Bone cells
- Blood cells
- Liver cells
- Nerve cells
- Brain cells
- Stomach cells
- Intestinal cells

20. – it is the largest
cell in a female body . it is about
one tenth of a millimeter in
diameter and visible to the naked
eye as a speck of translucent dust.
– are small
but unlike red blood cells , a huge
part of their size is made up of
DNA. It is intended to bring the
genes contained in the DNA in to
the female egg.

22. (plasma membrane / cytoplasmic membrane)
- is a biological membrane that separates the interior of all cells
from the outside environment.
- It serves as the outer boundary of the cell.
- It is a semipermeable membrane that selectively controls the
entrance and exit of materials.
- It can regulate the flow of materials into and out of the cells.
- Its functions is to Isolate the cytoplasm from the external
environment, Regulate the exchange of substances,
Communicate with other cells and Identification.

23. -it is the outermost structure of plant cells which consist of cellulose and
other substances.
- Its main function is to give rigidity and strength to the plant cells.
- The cell wall acts to protect the cell mechanically and chemically from
its environment, and is an additional layer of protection to the cell
membrane.
-Plant cell walls are primarily made up of pectin, fungi cell walls are
made up of chitin and bacteria cell walls are made up of peptidoglycan.
-Most commonly found in plant cells
- Controls turgity
- Extracellular structure surrounding plasma membrane
- Primary cell wall: extremely elastic
- Secondary cell wall: forms around primary cell wall after growth is
complete

24. - It is the liquid portion of the cell containing small organs ,” THE
ORGANELLES ”
Semifluid , organized ground materials in cells, it acts as a pool of raw
materials.
- Most (70%) is water , and the rest is proteins : carbohydrates, and
nucleotides, as well as their constituents.
- cytoplasm is a gel like substance that is inside the cell membrane. It
stores the organelles, water, and the chemicals in it.
- cytoplasm is constantly moving around.

25. - are parts of the cell which are adapted or specialized for
carrying out one or more vital functions, analogous to the
organs of the human body (such as the heart, lung, and kidney,
with each organ performing a different function).
- Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells have organelles, but
prokaryotic organelles are generally simpler and are not
membrane-bound.
-It is a structure in the cytoplasm in the cell.
-All organelles have a membrane surrounding it. Some
examples for organelles would be the Nucleus, Mitochondria,
and Golgi Bodies.
- Some jobs that the organelles fulfil are transporting waste,
breaking down food for the cell, and just being storage
containers.

27. • Oxygen
• Carbon
• Hydrogen
• Nitrogen
• Calcium
• Phosphorus
• Other elements
• 65
• 18
• 10
• 3
• 2
• 1
• 1

28. - Is a three dimentional network of small protein fibers in cytoplasm.
- It suspend the organelles in the cytoplasm and allows the regulated
movement of cell parts and responsible for the changes in cell shapes
and movements of the organelles.
- It is a cellular scaffolding or skeleton contained within
a cell's cytoplasm. The cytoskeleton is present in all cells.
- It forms structures such as flagella, cilia andlamellipodia and plays
important roles in both intracellular transport (the movement
of vesicles and organelles) and in cellular division.

29. - Responsible for protein synthesis. Consist of molecular complexes of
ribosomal RNA and proteins.
- it is the cell’s protein factories.
-The ribosome accomplishes the reading of the messenger RNAs and
the binding of amino acids to the transfer RNAs to build up the protein
structures. This process is called translation.
-The ribosome is a complex of over 50 proteins plus its own
complement of RNA, often denoted rRNA.
- Each cell contains thousands
- Miniature 'protein factories'
- Composes 25% of cell's mass
- Stationary type: embedded in rough endoplasmic reticulum
- Mobile type: injects proteins directly into cytoplasm

30. -Is a network or interconnected flattened hollow tubules and channels.
- Synthesizes carbohydrates, lipids, and protein.
-Tubular network fused to nuclear membrane
- Goes through cytoplasm onto cell membrane
- Stores, separates, and serves as cell's transport system
- Smooth type: lacks ribosomes
- Rough type (pictured): ribosomes embedded in surface

31. manufactures lipids,
contains enzymes that detoxify certain
poisons, transport carbohydrates, lipids,
and other non proteins.
is where proteins are
synthesized that is destined to be secreted
out of the cell. The outer (cytosolic) face of
the rough endoplasmic reticulum is
studded with ribosomes that are the sites
of protein synthesis. Rough endoplasmic
reticulum is especially prominent in cells
such as hepatocytes where active protein
synthesis occurs.

32. - is a collection of flat sacs hat transport the proteins from rough ER
to the outside of the cell.
- Enzymes in the Golgi apparatus modify the newly made proteins
by adding chemical groups.
- Protein 'packaging plant'
- A membrane structure found near nucleus
- Composed of numerous layers forming a sac.
- its is to process and package the macromolecules such
as proteins and lipids that are synthesized by the cell.

33. - A double membrane bound organelle which are often called the cell
powerhouse of the cell .
- This is where the chemical energy in the form of ATP is produced by
the biochemical process known as “ cell respiration ”.
- Second largest organelle with unique genetic structure
- Double-layered outer membrane with inner folds called cristae
- Energy-producing chemical reactions take place on cristae
- Controls level of water and other materials in cell
- Recycles and decomposes proteins, fats, and carbohydrates, and
forms urea

34. - This are bound by a single membrane.
Taking up space and pushing other organelles closer to the plasma
membrane where the materials can be exchanged and also give cell its shape
(SAP VACUOLE)
Store waste products to be released later or used to prevent other
organisms from eating them (CONTRACTILE VACUOLE)and;
As a digestive structure that stores food (FOOD VACUOLE).
- Vacuoles store food and waste. Some vacuoles store extra water. They are
often described as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a membrane.
Some cells, most notably Amoeba, have contractile vacuoles, which can pump
water out of the cell if there is too much water.
- The vacuoles of eukaryotic cells are usually larger in those of plants than
animals.

35. - Acts as a digestive system of the cell for the digestion processes of
materials taken in.
- Digestive 'plant' for proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates
- Transports undigested material to cell membrane for removal
- Vary in shape depending on process being carried out
- Cell breaks down if lysosome explodes.
- Lysosomes contain digestive enzymes (acidhydrolases). They digest
excess or worn-out organelles, food particles, and
engulfedviruses or bacteria

36. - Are the coloring pigments found in the plant cells.
- it is a major organelle found in the cells of plants and algae.
- Plastids are the site of manufacture and storage of important chemical
compounds used by the cell.
- They often contain pigments used in photosynthesis, and the types of
pigments present can change or determine the cell's color. They
possess a double-stranded DNA molecule, which is circular,
green pigments
red or colored pigments
white or colorless pigments
oily pigments
pale yellow pigment
orange pigments

38. Control the center of the cell.
- Contains all the genetic (hereditary)informationin the form of DNA .
-A cell's information center, the cell nucleus is the most conspicuous
organelle found in a eukaryotic cell. It houses the cell's chromosomes,
and is the place where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis
occurs.
-The nucleus is spherical and separated from the cytoplasm by a
double membrane called the nuclear envelope.
- The nuclear envelope isolates and protects a cell's DNA from
various molecules that could accidentally damage its structure or
interfere with its processing.
-
- Is a small dark straining region.
- It manufactures RNA and protein.Spherical shape
- Visible when cell is not dividing
- Contains RNA for protein manufacture

39. - Are long cytoplasmic projections containing
microtubules jutting out certain cells;
- Many single celled organisms use them for
propulsion .
- In plants , it is only found in species where
there are motile gamets (swimming) such as in the
mosses , liverworts , and ferns.
- It is a lash-like appendage that protrudes from
the cell body of
certain prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
- The word “flagellum” in Latin means whip.
- The primary role is locomotion but it also often
has function as a sensory organelle, being
sensitive to chemicals and temperatures outside
the cell.

40. - Are shorter and more numerous ;they
may cover the surface of some cells and
move in waves allowing many cells to move
through a medium.
- is an organelle found in eukaryoticcells.
Cilia are slender protuberances that project
from the much larger cell body.
-two types of cilia: motile cilia and non-motile,
or primary cilia, which typically
serve as sensory organelles.
Motile cilia – are Larger eukaryotes. These
are usually present on a cell's surface in
large numbers and beat in coordinated
waves.
Primary/Immotile cilia - are found on
nearly every cell in the body. These
usually occurs one per cell; nearly all
mammalian cells have a single non-motile
primary cilium

43. - Came from the greek word “eu” meaning "good"
and “karyon” meaning "nut" or "kernel"
- is any organism whose cells contain a nucleus and
other structures (organelles) enclosed within
membranes. Eukaryotes are formally the taxon Eukarya
or Eukaryota.
- are a group of organisms whose cells lack a
membrane-bound nucleus.
- Most prokaryotes are unicellular organisms.
- The word prokaryote comes from the Greek “pro”
meaning "before" and “ karyon” meaning "nut or
kernel".
- Prokaryotes do not have a nucleus, mitochondria, or
any other membrane-bound organelles.

44. *With muriatic acid
*Lacks tubular
structure
*No occurance
*Absent
*Consist of nucleic
acid
*Have chlorophyll
but not found in
chloroplasts
*Absent
• Without muriatic
acid
• With tubular
structure
• May occur
• Present
• Consist of nucleic
acid and protein
• Chlorophyll is found
in the chloroplasts
• Present
Cell Wall
Flagella
Cytoplasmic
Streaming
Mitochondria
Chromosome
Photosynthesis
apparatus
Nuclear Membrane

45. • Usually larger with distinct
outlines and a definite cell wall.
• With thin lining of cytoplasm
with large food vacuole.
• Covered with cell wall that
consist of cellulose.
• Basically smaller with less
distinct boundaries and no
definite wall.
• Consist of mostly entirely of
cytoplasm. Food vacuoles are
usually small and not permanent.
• With no definite cell wall and do
not have cellulose.

47. - It is the inner pool of water , nutrients and other molecules.
- It serves as a transporting medium in that it carries food and
oxygen into the cells and wastes and carbon dioxide from
the cells.
- The intracellular fluid also maintains the shape
and size of each cell in the body.
- It is seen outside the plasma membrane.
- It helps control the movement of water and electrolytes throughout the
body. In order to maintain osmotic balance.
- allows a solute balance between the outside and the inside of the cell, or to
produce a gradient (which is commonly used to initiate diffusion, osmosis,
facilitated diffusion, active transport, etc. )

48. -it is the movement were the materials tend to move down gradients,
from areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration.
- Requires no extra energy, materials move down gradients.
- is a movement of biochemicals and
other atomic or molecular substances across membranes.
- it depends on the permeability of the cell membrane, which, in turn,
depends on the organization and characteristics of the
membrane lipids and proteins.
-There are four main kinds of passive transport
namedly diffusion, facilitated diffusion, filtration and osmosis.

49. - Is the tendency of the materials to move from areas high to low
concentration; eventually the system reaches a state of dynamic
equilibrium.
- diffusion moves materials from an area of higher
concentration to the lower, it is described as moving solutes
"down the concentration gradient" (compared with active
transport, which often moves material from area of low
concentration to area of higher concentration, and therefore
referred to as moving the material "against the concentration
gradient").

50. - Is the movement ofmolecules that are large or ectrically charged
across membranes facilitated by carrier moleule.
- also known as facilitated transport or passive-mediated
transport) is the process of spontaneous passive transport (as
opposed to active transport) of molecules or ions across
a biological membrane via specific transmembrane integral
proteins.

51. - Is the movement of water through a selectively permeable
membrane. Diffusion of water across a membrane. High
concentration of water to low concentration of water.

52. - Substance that dissolved in another medium
- It is the suspended one .
- Medium into which the solute is dissolved.

53. - There is the same concentration inside the cell as outside.
- “Iso” means equal Solute concentration is the same outside and inside
the cell Water moves in and out of the cell but in equal amounts. No
change in cell size . Animals prefer this

55. - The fluid outside has a higher concentration of water
molecules than inside the cell so water will flow into the cell.
“Hypo” means less Concentration of solute (dissolved solids) is
less outside of cell than inside Therefore a higher concentration
of water outside the cell , Water will enter cell , Cell may lyse
(burst) , Cell wall prevents lysis
in plant cells

57. •The cells are in an environment with higher concentration of
salts outside water tends to move out of the cells.
•“ Hyper ” means more Concentration of solute is higher outside
of cell , Therefore a lower concentration of water outside the cell
Water leaves the cell Results in plasmolysis in plant cells

59. - Requires energy; typically movement of materials against the
concentration gradients.
A. Active transport may involve molecules or larger particles.
Molecules are usually transported across membranes by carrier
protein in the lipid bilayer.
B. Larger particles are actively transported by an out pocketing or
in pocketing of the plasma membrane .
(cell eating), plasma
membrane folds around a particle. Single celled organism use this
method to ingest food.
, cells use this
method to eliminate wastes.

60. – is the shrinking of the cells cytoplasm by osmosis due to loss of
protoplasm.
– is the entrance or adding of water to the living cell resulting to the
bulging of the cell.
– “cell drinking” certain amount of liquid are taken by the cell.
– “cell eating” solid particles are ingested by the cell.

61. – is the division of nucleus divides to produce two nuclei having
the same number of chromosomes with the parent nucleus.
Occurs only in somatic cells.

62. 1st Stage of Mitosis
Prophase
The DNA condenses, organizes and the classic
chromosomes structures appears

63. 2nd Stage
Prometaphase
Microtubules attached to chromosomes

65. 3rd Stage
Metaphase
The chromosomes align.

66. 4th Stage
Anaphase
The chromosomes separates.

67. 5th Stage
Telophase
Nuclear memebranes reappear
around the 2 sets of chromosomes

68. Cytokinesis

70. Interphase
It consist of 3 stages namely G1, S and G2