The document provides information about biomolecules, which are organic or inorganic molecules present in living organisms. It discusses the major biomolecules like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates include sugars, starch, cellulose and are the most abundant organic molecules. Proteins are polymers of amino acids and perform diverse structural and functional roles in cells. The primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure of proteins is also explained briefly.
- Carbohydrates provide energy and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Glucose is a primary carbohydrate that our bodies use for energy.
- Carbohydrates exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond. Polysaccharides contain long chains of monosaccharide units.
- Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides that provide energy storage or structural support
Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be further broken down. They are categorized by the number of carbons they contain and whether they have an aldehyde or ketone functional group. Monosaccharides can exist as different isomers depending on the spatial arrangement of their atoms. Some types of isomerism in monosaccharides include stereoisomers, enantiomers, epimers, anomers, and pyranose-furanose isomers.
1) Carbohydrates are an essential class of biomolecules that serve as the primary energy source for many organisms. They are classified into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides depending on their size.
2) Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Oligosaccharides consist of 2-9 monosaccharide units and include disaccharides like sucrose and maltose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide units and include starch, cellulose, and glycogen.
3) Carbohydrates play important biological roles like energy storage, structure, transport, and prevention of diseases. Glucose is a key energy source, while
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates and describing their main biological functions. It then discusses the three main classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. For each class, key examples are provided and their structures and properties are explained. The document also covers topics like stereochemistry of carbohydrates, glycosaminoglycans, and important monosaccharides and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. In summary, it serves as a comprehensive overview of carbohydrate structure, classification, and functions in biological systems.
This document outlines the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. It notes that there are two main types of cells - prokaryotes, which are the simplest life forms and earliest inhabitants of Earth, and eukaryotes, which developed from prokaryotes and include more complex multicellular organisms like animals, plants and fungi. Prokaryotes exist in two kingdoms - bacteria and archaebacteria, which can survive in extreme environments, while eukaryotes are larger and have membrane-bound nuclei and organelles.
This document provides an introduction to biochemistry and cell structure and function. It discusses that biochemistry studies biological processes at the cellular and molecular levels using chemistry. The key components of cells are then described, including their major bio-molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. The document outlines how cells maintain a high degree of internal order through organized chemical reactions and transport of molecules and energy across membranes.
Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate. It occurs in three steps:
1) Phosphorolysis by glycogen phosphorylase cleaves α-1,4 glycosidic linkages, producing glucose-1-phosphate until four glucose residues remain.
2) A debranching enzyme removes these four residue branches through two activities, producing linear chains of glucose residues.
3) Phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate, which can then enter glycolysis to produce energy or be released as free glucose from the liver. Glycogenolysis is regulated by allosteric effectors, hormones like glucagon and
Polysaccharide introduction, example, structure, starch, cellulose, chitin those structure and important functions and their presence in plants and animals, polysaccharide types based on functions and their composition , functions of polysaccharides , important images for relevant polysaccharides types, polysaccharide role in plants and animal cells. Starch - structure and functions, cellulose structure and functions, chitin - structure and functions
- Carbohydrates provide energy and are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Glucose is a primary carbohydrate that our bodies use for energy.
- Carbohydrates exist as monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides like glucose cannot be broken down further. Disaccharides contain two monosaccharide units joined by a glycosidic bond. Polysaccharides contain long chains of monosaccharide units.
- Examples of monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose. Disaccharides include sucrose, lactose, and maltose. Starch, glycogen, and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides that provide energy storage or structural support
Monosaccharides are simple sugars that cannot be further broken down. They are categorized by the number of carbons they contain and whether they have an aldehyde or ketone functional group. Monosaccharides can exist as different isomers depending on the spatial arrangement of their atoms. Some types of isomerism in monosaccharides include stereoisomers, enantiomers, epimers, anomers, and pyranose-furanose isomers.
1) Carbohydrates are an essential class of biomolecules that serve as the primary energy source for many organisms. They are classified into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides depending on their size.
2) Monosaccharides include glucose, fructose, and galactose. Oligosaccharides consist of 2-9 monosaccharide units and include disaccharides like sucrose and maltose. Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharide units and include starch, cellulose, and glycogen.
3) Carbohydrates play important biological roles like energy storage, structure, transport, and prevention of diseases. Glucose is a key energy source, while
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It begins by defining carbohydrates and describing their main biological functions. It then discusses the three main classes of carbohydrates: monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. For each class, key examples are provided and their structures and properties are explained. The document also covers topics like stereochemistry of carbohydrates, glycosaminoglycans, and important monosaccharides and polysaccharides like starch, cellulose, and glycogen. In summary, it serves as a comprehensive overview of carbohydrate structure, classification, and functions in biological systems.
This document outlines the key differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. It notes that there are two main types of cells - prokaryotes, which are the simplest life forms and earliest inhabitants of Earth, and eukaryotes, which developed from prokaryotes and include more complex multicellular organisms like animals, plants and fungi. Prokaryotes exist in two kingdoms - bacteria and archaebacteria, which can survive in extreme environments, while eukaryotes are larger and have membrane-bound nuclei and organelles.
This document provides an introduction to biochemistry and cell structure and function. It discusses that biochemistry studies biological processes at the cellular and molecular levels using chemistry. The key components of cells are then described, including their major bio-molecules like proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. The document outlines how cells maintain a high degree of internal order through organized chemical reactions and transport of molecules and energy across membranes.
Glycogenolysis is the breakdown of glycogen into glucose-1-phosphate. It occurs in three steps:
1) Phosphorolysis by glycogen phosphorylase cleaves α-1,4 glycosidic linkages, producing glucose-1-phosphate until four glucose residues remain.
2) A debranching enzyme removes these four residue branches through two activities, producing linear chains of glucose residues.
3) Phosphoglucomutase converts glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate, which can then enter glycolysis to produce energy or be released as free glucose from the liver. Glycogenolysis is regulated by allosteric effectors, hormones like glucagon and
Polysaccharide introduction, example, structure, starch, cellulose, chitin those structure and important functions and their presence in plants and animals, polysaccharide types based on functions and their composition , functions of polysaccharides , important images for relevant polysaccharides types, polysaccharide role in plants and animal cells. Starch - structure and functions, cellulose structure and functions, chitin - structure and functions
The document discusses carbohydrate structure and properties. It covers the biological and medical importance of carbohydrates, including their functions as energy stores and structural components. It also describes the chemical nature of carbohydrates as polyhydroxy alcohols with an aldehyde or keto group. Carbohydrate structure is examined using Fisher, Haworth and chair conformations. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides like disaccharides, and polysaccharides including homo- and heteropolysaccharides. Important monosaccharides, derivatives, disaccharides and polysaccharides are identified. Properties of monosaccharides such as isomerism, optical activity, epimerism, hemiacetal/ketal formation,
This field combines biology as well as chemistry to study the chemical structure of a living organism
Biochemistry is a basic science which deals with chemical nature and chemical behaviour of living matter and with the reactions and processes they undergo.
“The branch of science dealing with the study of all the life processes such as control and coordination within a living organism is called Biochemistry”
The document discusses carbohydrates, including their classification into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It describes the functions of carbohydrates as an energy source for the brain and regulating blood sugar levels. It also notes diseases that can result from carbohydrate deficiency, such as muscle cramping, fatigue, headaches, and dizziness.
This document discusses carbohydrate metabolism and energy production. It explains that ATP is the energy currency of cells and is produced through substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation. Glucose is the main carbohydrate and can be stored as glycogen, metabolized for energy through glycolysis and the TCA cycle, or stored as fat. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, and pyruvate can then be converted to lactate, alanine, or enter the TCA cycle. The TCA cycle generates energy carriers that are used in the electron transport chain to produce large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
Biological oxidation and Electron Transport Chain is the most important and confusing topic in biochemistry metabolism, but here we tried to put it in the simplest way easy to learn. This presentation was guided by Dr. Arpita Patel and made by Miss Nidhi Argade.
This document summarizes four major types of biomolecules: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides like glucose, disaccharides like sucrose, and polysaccharides like glycogen. Proteins are composed of amino acid chains and perform important functions like transport, structure, and enzymes. Lipids include triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids, and are used for insulation and energy storage. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain genetic information and direct protein synthesis and cellular functions.
The citric acid cycle (CAC) is a key metabolic pathway that occurs in the mitochondria of cells. It involves the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to carbon dioxide. During each turn of the cycle, NAD+ and FAD are reduced to NADH and FADH2 to generate energy in the form of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Overall, the complete oxidation of one acetyl-CoA molecule in the CAC and respiratory chain produces 12 ATP molecules, capturing the energy from nutrients. The cycle plays a central role in cellular respiration and the production of energy.
This document provides an introduction to biochemistry, including definitions and key concepts. It discusses biochemistry as the study of the structure and function of biomolecules in living organisms. The document outlines that living things are composed of common elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and complex macromolecules including carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids and lipids. It also describes important cellular structures like the cell membrane, nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts. Finally, the document provides overviews of the four major macromolecule classes and how pH and buffers are important concepts in biochemistry.
1) Glycolysis breaks down glucose to pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. Key enzymes include hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase.
2) Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-CoA in mitochondria by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, producing NADH.
3) Acetyl-CoA then enters the citric acid cycle, where it is oxidized to carbon dioxide, generating more NADH and FADH2. This fuels the electron transport chain to produce large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
Metabolic pathways can be catabolic, involving the breakdown of complexes, or anabolic, involving synthesis. Glycolysis is the catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a net yield of 2 ATP per glucose molecule. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase requires 2 ATP to phosphorylate and cleave glucose, while the payoff phase generates 4 ATP from substrate-level phosphorylation as the intermediates are oxidized to pyruvate. Overall, glycolysis oxidizes glucose to pyruvate, reduces NAD+ to NADH, and generates a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells break down glucose and other organic molecules to obtain energy in the form of ATP. It occurs in three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. During glycolysis, glucose is broken down to form pyruvate in the cytoplasm. In the citric acid cycle, pyruvate enters the mitochondria and is further oxidized, producing NADH, FADH2, and ATP. During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed through an electron transport chain in the mitochondrial inner membrane. Their energy is used to pump protons out of the matrix, establishing a proton gradient. ATP synthase uses this gradient to
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It discusses that carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature and an important source of energy for cells. Carbohydrates can also act as structural components and be involved in cell membranes, surface antigens, and extracellular substances. The document further describes different types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It provides examples and characteristics of important carbohydrates such as glucose, fructose, sucrose, lactose, and glycogen. Reaction and derivatives of monosaccharides are also summarized.
Proteins are composed of amino acids that link together via peptide bonds. There are 20 naturally occurring amino acids that vary in properties like polarity, charge, and ability to form secondary structures. The sequence and interactions of amino acids give proteins their unique 3D structures and functions. Denaturation disrupts non-covalent bonds within proteins, altering their shapes and eliminating biological activity.
This document defines and describes various types of lipids. It begins by explaining that lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds related to fatty acids, fats, oils, waxes and other substances. It then discusses the basic components of lipids like fatty acids, glycerol and their esters known as triglycerides. The document further classifies lipids into simple lipids, compound lipids and derived lipids. Various types of phospholipids, glycolipids, sterols and terpenoids are also explained. Physical and chemical properties of lipids are outlined along with their important functions in living organisms.
Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.pptxAmjad Afridi
All living things can be divided into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms found in Bacteria and Archaea that have simpler cells without organelles. Eukaryotes include animals, plants, fungi and protists and have more complex cells with organelles like mitochondria and a nucleus. The main differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are that eukaryotes have a nucleus, larger and more complex ribosomes, and plant eukaryotes have a cell wall.
This document discusses carbohydrates and monosaccharides. It defines carbohydrates as compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates and include trioses, tetroses, pentoses, and hexoses. The document discusses various properties of monosaccharides including isomerism, anomerism, mutarotation, and common chemical reactions like oxidation, reduction, and reactions with acids and bases. It also summarizes important derivatives of monosaccharides such as amino sugars, deoxy sugars, sugar acids, sugar alcohols, esters, and glycosides.
This document provides an overview of proteins and amino acids. It discusses the 20 standard amino acids that make up proteins, including their structures and classifications. It also covers key protein structures like primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels. The primary structure is the amino acid sequence. Secondary structures include alpha helices and beta sheets. Tertiary structure involves folding of the polypeptide chain into a compact 3D structure, and quaternary involves interactions between multiple polypeptide subunits.
1. Metabolism refers to the chemical processes that take place in living organisms to sustain life. It includes breaking down nutrients into smaller units and building up complex molecules.
2. Glucose, fats, and proteins are broken down through various pathways to ultimately form acetyl CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle to generate energy in the form of ATP. Less oxygen results in lactic acid formation from glucose.
3. The electron transport chain uses oxygen to convert products of the citric acid cycle into large amounts of ATP, the main energy currency of cells. Fatty acids yield more ATP than glucose due to their carbon-hydrogen bonds.
This document discusses ketone bodies, their metabolism, and conditions of excess ketone body production. Ketone bodies are produced in the liver from acetyl-CoA when fatty acid breakdown exceeds the ability of the citric acid cycle to process acetyl-CoA. They can be used as an energy source by other tissues. Excess ketone body production occurs in starvation and uncontrolled diabetes, leading to ketosis or ketoacidosis as ketone levels rise and pH decreases due to ketone acid buildup.
This document provides information on biomolecules. It discusses the 5 main categories of macromolecules - carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids. It then goes on to describe each category in more detail, including their monomers, structure, functions. For carbohydrates, it covers monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides like starch, glycogen, cellulose. For proteins, it discusses amino acids, protein structure levels from primary to quaternary. For lipids, it distinguishes simple lipids like fats and waxes from complex lipids.
This document discusses biomolecules and provides details about carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. It notes that there are 5 categories of macromolecules: carbohydrates, amino acids, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides and serve functions like energy storage. Proteins are made of amino acids and have primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary structures that determine their shape and function. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain deoxyribonucleotides and ribonucleotides and are responsible for heredity and protein synthesis.
The document discusses carbohydrate structure and properties. It covers the biological and medical importance of carbohydrates, including their functions as energy stores and structural components. It also describes the chemical nature of carbohydrates as polyhydroxy alcohols with an aldehyde or keto group. Carbohydrate structure is examined using Fisher, Haworth and chair conformations. Carbohydrates are classified as monosaccharides, oligosaccharides like disaccharides, and polysaccharides including homo- and heteropolysaccharides. Important monosaccharides, derivatives, disaccharides and polysaccharides are identified. Properties of monosaccharides such as isomerism, optical activity, epimerism, hemiacetal/ketal formation,
This field combines biology as well as chemistry to study the chemical structure of a living organism
Biochemistry is a basic science which deals with chemical nature and chemical behaviour of living matter and with the reactions and processes they undergo.
“The branch of science dealing with the study of all the life processes such as control and coordination within a living organism is called Biochemistry”
The document discusses carbohydrates, including their classification into monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. It describes the functions of carbohydrates as an energy source for the brain and regulating blood sugar levels. It also notes diseases that can result from carbohydrate deficiency, such as muscle cramping, fatigue, headaches, and dizziness.
This document discusses carbohydrate metabolism and energy production. It explains that ATP is the energy currency of cells and is produced through substrate-level phosphorylation and oxidative phosphorylation. Glucose is the main carbohydrate and can be stored as glycogen, metabolized for energy through glycolysis and the TCA cycle, or stored as fat. Glycolysis converts glucose to pyruvate, and pyruvate can then be converted to lactate, alanine, or enter the TCA cycle. The TCA cycle generates energy carriers that are used in the electron transport chain to produce large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
Biological oxidation and Electron Transport Chain is the most important and confusing topic in biochemistry metabolism, but here we tried to put it in the simplest way easy to learn. This presentation was guided by Dr. Arpita Patel and made by Miss Nidhi Argade.
This document summarizes four major types of biomolecules: carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides like glucose, disaccharides like sucrose, and polysaccharides like glycogen. Proteins are composed of amino acid chains and perform important functions like transport, structure, and enzymes. Lipids include triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids, and are used for insulation and energy storage. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain genetic information and direct protein synthesis and cellular functions.
The citric acid cycle (CAC) is a key metabolic pathway that occurs in the mitochondria of cells. It involves the oxidation of acetyl-CoA derived from carbohydrates, fats, and proteins to carbon dioxide. During each turn of the cycle, NAD+ and FAD are reduced to NADH and FADH2 to generate energy in the form of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation. Overall, the complete oxidation of one acetyl-CoA molecule in the CAC and respiratory chain produces 12 ATP molecules, capturing the energy from nutrients. The cycle plays a central role in cellular respiration and the production of energy.
This document provides an introduction to biochemistry, including definitions and key concepts. It discusses biochemistry as the study of the structure and function of biomolecules in living organisms. The document outlines that living things are composed of common elements like carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and complex macromolecules including carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids and lipids. It also describes important cellular structures like the cell membrane, nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplasts. Finally, the document provides overviews of the four major macromolecule classes and how pH and buffers are important concepts in biochemistry.
1) Glycolysis breaks down glucose to pyruvate, generating a small amount of ATP. Key enzymes include hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase.
2) Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl-CoA in mitochondria by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, producing NADH.
3) Acetyl-CoA then enters the citric acid cycle, where it is oxidized to carbon dioxide, generating more NADH and FADH2. This fuels the electron transport chain to produce large amounts of ATP through oxidative phosphorylation.
Metabolic pathways can be catabolic, involving the breakdown of complexes, or anabolic, involving synthesis. Glycolysis is the catabolic pathway that breaks down glucose into pyruvate, producing a net yield of 2 ATP per glucose molecule. It occurs in two phases: the preparatory phase requires 2 ATP to phosphorylate and cleave glucose, while the payoff phase generates 4 ATP from substrate-level phosphorylation as the intermediates are oxidized to pyruvate. Overall, glycolysis oxidizes glucose to pyruvate, reduces NAD+ to NADH, and generates a small amount of ATP through substrate-level phosphorylation.
Cellular respiration is the process by which cells break down glucose and other organic molecules to obtain energy in the form of ATP. It occurs in three main stages: glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation. During glycolysis, glucose is broken down to form pyruvate in the cytoplasm. In the citric acid cycle, pyruvate enters the mitochondria and is further oxidized, producing NADH, FADH2, and ATP. During oxidative phosphorylation, electrons from NADH and FADH2 are passed through an electron transport chain in the mitochondrial inner membrane. Their energy is used to pump protons out of the matrix, establishing a proton gradient. ATP synthase uses this gradient to
This document provides information about carbohydrates. It discusses that carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature and an important source of energy for cells. Carbohydrates can also act as structural components and be involved in cell membranes, surface antigens, and extracellular substances. The document further describes different types of carbohydrates including monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It provides examples and characteristics of important carbohydrates such as glucose, fructose, sucrose, lactose, and glycogen. Reaction and derivatives of monosaccharides are also summarized.
Proteins are composed of amino acids that link together via peptide bonds. There are 20 naturally occurring amino acids that vary in properties like polarity, charge, and ability to form secondary structures. The sequence and interactions of amino acids give proteins their unique 3D structures and functions. Denaturation disrupts non-covalent bonds within proteins, altering their shapes and eliminating biological activity.
This document defines and describes various types of lipids. It begins by explaining that lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds related to fatty acids, fats, oils, waxes and other substances. It then discusses the basic components of lipids like fatty acids, glycerol and their esters known as triglycerides. The document further classifies lipids into simple lipids, compound lipids and derived lipids. Various types of phospholipids, glycolipids, sterols and terpenoids are also explained. Physical and chemical properties of lipids are outlined along with their important functions in living organisms.
Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell.pptxAmjad Afridi
All living things can be divided into three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms found in Bacteria and Archaea that have simpler cells without organelles. Eukaryotes include animals, plants, fungi and protists and have more complex cells with organelles like mitochondria and a nucleus. The main differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells are that eukaryotes have a nucleus, larger and more complex ribosomes, and plant eukaryotes have a cell wall.
This document discusses carbohydrates and monosaccharides. It defines carbohydrates as compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates and include trioses, tetroses, pentoses, and hexoses. The document discusses various properties of monosaccharides including isomerism, anomerism, mutarotation, and common chemical reactions like oxidation, reduction, and reactions with acids and bases. It also summarizes important derivatives of monosaccharides such as amino sugars, deoxy sugars, sugar acids, sugar alcohols, esters, and glycosides.
This document provides an overview of proteins and amino acids. It discusses the 20 standard amino acids that make up proteins, including their structures and classifications. It also covers key protein structures like primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary levels. The primary structure is the amino acid sequence. Secondary structures include alpha helices and beta sheets. Tertiary structure involves folding of the polypeptide chain into a compact 3D structure, and quaternary involves interactions between multiple polypeptide subunits.
1. Metabolism refers to the chemical processes that take place in living organisms to sustain life. It includes breaking down nutrients into smaller units and building up complex molecules.
2. Glucose, fats, and proteins are broken down through various pathways to ultimately form acetyl CoA, which enters the citric acid cycle to generate energy in the form of ATP. Less oxygen results in lactic acid formation from glucose.
3. The electron transport chain uses oxygen to convert products of the citric acid cycle into large amounts of ATP, the main energy currency of cells. Fatty acids yield more ATP than glucose due to their carbon-hydrogen bonds.
This document discusses ketone bodies, their metabolism, and conditions of excess ketone body production. Ketone bodies are produced in the liver from acetyl-CoA when fatty acid breakdown exceeds the ability of the citric acid cycle to process acetyl-CoA. They can be used as an energy source by other tissues. Excess ketone body production occurs in starvation and uncontrolled diabetes, leading to ketosis or ketoacidosis as ketone levels rise and pH decreases due to ketone acid buildup.
This document provides information on biomolecules. It discusses the 5 main categories of macromolecules - carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids. It then goes on to describe each category in more detail, including their monomers, structure, functions. For carbohydrates, it covers monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides like starch, glycogen, cellulose. For proteins, it discusses amino acids, protein structure levels from primary to quaternary. For lipids, it distinguishes simple lipids like fats and waxes from complex lipids.
This document discusses biomolecules and provides details about carbohydrates, proteins, and nucleic acids. It notes that there are 5 categories of macromolecules: carbohydrates, amino acids, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides and serve functions like energy storage. Proteins are made of amino acids and have primary, secondary, tertiary, and sometimes quaternary structures that determine their shape and function. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain deoxyribonucleotides and ribonucleotides and are responsible for heredity and protein synthesis.
Biomolecules are organic compounds found in living organisms. The main types of biomolecules are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, and water. Carbohydrates include sugars, starch, and cellulose and function as energy storage and structural components. Proteins are made of amino acids and are essential for cell structure and function. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain nucleotides and carry genetic information.
This document discusses biomolecules. It begins by defining biomolecules as chemicals or molecules present in living organisms. The sum total of different types of biomolecules, compounds, and ions present in a cell is called the cellular pool. Biomolecules are compounds of carbon, so the chemistry of living organisms is organized around carbon. The major biomolecules in cells include inorganic molecules like minerals and gases, organic molecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids, and smaller molecules like amino acids and nucleotides.
Here are the key points about lipids:
- Lipids are organic compounds that are relatively insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They serve important structural and energy storage functions.
- The main types of lipids include fatty acids, triglycerides, phospholipids, and steroids.
- Fatty acids are the building blocks of fats and oils. They are long hydrocarbon chains that can be saturated or unsaturated.
- Triglycerides are composed of fatty acids attached to a glycerol backbone. They are the main form of energy storage in animals.
- Phospholipids are a major component of cell membranes. They have a glycerol backbone with two fatty acids and
Bacteria have basic nutritional requirements including a source of energy, nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, phosphorus, sulfur, minerals, and water. The sources of these nutritional requirements define an organism. Many bacteria can synthesize molecules from basic minerals, while others require preformed organic molecules. Bacterial cells are composed primarily of carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen, phosphorus, and other minor elements. These elements are obtained from various sources and serve important functions in bacterial cells.
This document discusses various biomolecules including amino acids, lipids and fatty acids, nucleotides, and macromolecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, nucleic acids, and their structure, functions, and importance. It describes the four main types of protein structure - primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary. It also summarizes metabolism as the set of life-sustaining chemical transformations within cells including catabolism and anabolism.
The document discusses different types of biomolecules. It focuses on carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids and provides details about their structure, functions and classification. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides. Major lipids are triacylglycerols, phospholipids and sterols. Nucleic acids are DNA and RNA which store and transmit genetic information.
Biomolecules are organic compounds that are essential for life. The main biomolecules are carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic acids, and lipids. Carbohydrates include monosaccharides (simple sugars), disaccharides, and polysaccharides. Glucose is an important monosaccharide that tissues use for energy. Proteins are made of amino acids and perform many functions. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA control genetic inheritance and cellular functions. Lipids include fats, oils, and waxes and store energy. These biomolecules perform critical roles in biological processes and are the building blocks of living organisms.
Water, carbon dioxide, acids, bases, salts, and organic compounds like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are the basic chemical components of life. Water makes up 80% of living matter, provides solvent properties, and transports substances. Carbon dioxide provides carbon and oxygen for organic compounds. Changes in acidity and salt concentrations can impair cell function and cause death. Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are organic polymers that serve vital structural and metabolic roles within cells. DNA contains the genetic code and is replicated for inheritance, while RNA aids in protein synthesis.
This document provides an introduction to plant constituents and their chemical tests. It discusses that plants contain primary and secondary metabolites. Primary metabolites include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids which are essential for plant life. Secondary metabolites have therapeutic effects and include alkaloids, glycosides, terpenoids, volatile oils, tannins, and resins. The document then focuses on carbohydrates, describing monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It provides examples and discusses their structures and chemical properties. Tests to identify carbohydrates are also outlined.
This presentation is based on the main topics dealing with chapter no 14.of chemistry.this chapter deals with the introduction ,classification,properties and functions of carbohydrates,proteins, Enzymes,vitamins,nucleic acids,lipid etc. this presentation will help students as well as teachers in the teaching learning process
This document discusses various types of macromolecules including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. It begins by defining biochemistry and explaining that it studies the chemical reactions that occur in living organisms, focusing on substances like enzymes, hormones, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, DNA and RNA. It then discusses the importance of biochemistry in pharmacy and nursing, explaining how it helps understand drug constitution, metabolism, storage and biochemical tests. The document proceeds to discuss carbohydrates in depth, explaining their classification into mono-, di-, oligo- and polysaccharides. It provides examples and functions of important carbohydrates like glucose, fructose, starch and cellulose. Finally, it briefly introduces lipids and
The document defines biochemistry and discusses its main components in living cells, including water, carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and inorganic constituents. It then focuses on the importance of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, and inorganic constituents. Specifically, it discusses glucose metabolism and diabetes mellitus, explaining the different types of diabetes, associated biochemical disturbances, and changes in blood glucose levels.
The document summarizes 5 key principles of cell chemistry:
1. The importance of carbon in forming organic molecules
2. The importance of water for chemical reactions and as a solvent
3. The importance of selectively permeable membranes in cells
4. The importance of polymerization of small molecules to form macromolecules
5. The importance of self-assembly of molecules into organized cellular structures.
Water makes up 50-90% of the human body and plays several important roles. It acts as a solvent, transports nutrients and wastes, regulates body temperature, and lubricates and cushions tissues. Water has unique properties like hydrogen bonding that allow it to exist in solid, liquid, and gas states and to dissolve many compounds. The major organic compounds in the body are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Carbohydrates include sugars and starches and serve as energy sources. Lipids include fats, phospholipids, and steroids and serve structural and insulating functions. Proteins are made of amino acids and serve many roles as enzymes, hormones, and structures. Nucleic acids like DNA
Carbohydrates serve various functions in animal nutrition. They can be divided into soluble and insoluble categories based on digestibility. Soluble carbohydrates like simple sugars, starch, and hemicellulose are easily digestible, while insoluble carbohydrates like crude fiber, cellulose, and lignin are less digestible by non-ruminants but can be digested by rumen microbes in ruminants. Carbohydrates function as a major energy source, help maintain blood glucose levels, aid in nutrient absorption, support rumen microbes, and are a component of important biological compounds. They are classified into sugars like monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides which differ in their structure
BIOLOGY FORM 4 CHAPTER 4 - CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF THE CELL PART 1Nirmala Josephine
Living organisms are composed of about 25 chemical elements, primarily carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. These elements combine to form macromolecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids that make up living matter. Carbohydrates like starch and glycogen store glucose for energy. Lipids made of triglycerides provide over twice as much energy per gram when broken down. Proteins are needed to build new cells and tissues. Nucleic acids like DNA and RNA contain the genetic code and help synthesize proteins. Water is essential for life, making up over 70% of living things and enabling biochemical reactions and transport within organisms.
This document provides information about the basic biochemistry of cells. It discusses the discovery of cells and cellular structures. It describes that cells are the fundamental unit of living organisms and discusses the cellular pool of organic and inorganic materials. It also summarizes cellular metabolism, the basic chemical constituents of cells including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids. It provides classifications and roles of these biomolecules. Finally, it briefly discusses cellular enzymes and factors that affect enzyme activity.
This document discusses different types of microbial phototrophs. It describes oxygenic phototrophs like cyanobacteria which produce oxygen during photosynthesis using water as the electron donor. It also describes anoxygenic phototrophs which do not produce oxygen, including purple sulfur and nonsulfur phototrophs which use inorganic sulfur compounds or hydrogen as electron donors, green sulfur phototrophs which also use inorganic sulfur compounds, and green nonsulfur phototrophs and heliobacteria. Each group is characterized by their electron donors, habitats, and examples of genera.
Microbial biotechnology uses microorganisms like bacteria and fungi to develop useful products and processes. It is a branch of biotechnology that has been used for thousands of years in activities like food production and more recently to produce medicines and other products. Microbial biotechnology has a wide scope and can be used to develop vaccines, undertake genetic engineering, produce biofuels and more.
1) Industrial biotechnology uses microbial biomass, enzymes, and metabolites for recombinant products, fermentation processes, and industrial-scale fermentors.
2) Genes from other organisms can be introduced into microbial cells to produce foreign proteins through hosts like E. coli and yeast. This has led to production of products like insulin.
3) Large industrial fermenters are constructed of stainless steel and include features like a cooling jacket, aeration systems using spargers and impellers, and baffles to control environmental factors during fermentation.
The document provides information about various concentration units used in chemistry such as molarity, molality, normality, formality, percentage solutions, parts per million (ppm), specific gravity, and dilution calculations. It defines each term, provides examples of calculations using the relevant formulas, and explains how to perform dilutions to make solutions with lower concentrations from more concentrated stock solutions. Key formulas covered include those for molarity (M= moles solute/L solution), molality (m= moles solute/kg solvent), and dilution (C1V1=C2V2).
Soil contains a diverse population of microorganisms that play an important role in nutrient cycling and plant growth. The types and numbers of microbes vary depending on soil characteristics like texture, pH, moisture, and organic matter content. Understanding the distribution of microbes in different soil environments can provide insights into maintaining soil quality and productivity.
This document discusses the early history and discovery of viruses. It describes how in the late 18th century Lady Montagu observed inoculation practices in Turkey that protected against smallpox. In the late 19th century, advances like the bacterial filter allowed scientists like Ivanowski and Beijerinck to discover that the cause of diseases like tobacco mosaic disease were not bacteria but smaller filterable agents they called viruses. Reed then showed in 1900 that yellow fever was caused by a virus transmitted by mosquitoes. In 1915, Twort discovered that bacteria could also be infected by viruses, which were then further studied and named bacteriophages by d'Herelle for their ability to lyse bacteria.
this presentation show details regarding how the concept of agricultural microbiology came into existance and also the contribution of various scientists
This document contains information about complement regulation, proteins involved in it and various diseases associated with defects in complement regulation.
Vitamins are the trace elements required by our body.They may not be required in large amount such as carbohydrate, protein or lipid but are required in trace amount to maintain the metabolic reactions going on in our body. Vitamins are mainly of two types: fat soluble and lipid soluble. Lipid soluble vitamins are stored in our body.
Vitamin E is one of the fat soluble vitamins.Its main actions is to scavenge the free radicals. Thus is the major component of our natural anti-oxidant system.It also plays important role in certain biological functions.
Immunization is very important in the developing countries where the major cause of death is infectious diseases.This ppt contains the brief introduction about different immunization protocols , types of vaccines and vaccination schedule.
Antigen antibody interactions play important role in immunological assays which help in detection of disease.Such interaction are of various types e.g.Precipitation,Flocculation, Agglutination, Complement fixation, ELISA,RIA, Immunoflourescence,Immunoprecipitation.
ESR spectroscopy in liquid food and beverages.pptxPRIYANKA PATEL
With increasing population, people need to rely on packaged food stuffs. Packaging of food materials requires the preservation of food. There are various methods for the treatment of food to preserve them and irradiation treatment of food is one of them. It is the most common and the most harmless method for the food preservation as it does not alter the necessary micronutrients of food materials. Although irradiated food doesn’t cause any harm to the human health but still the quality assessment of food is required to provide consumers with necessary information about the food. ESR spectroscopy is the most sophisticated way to investigate the quality of the food and the free radicals induced during the processing of the food. ESR spin trapping technique is useful for the detection of highly unstable radicals in the food. The antioxidant capability of liquid food and beverages in mainly performed by spin trapping technique.
The technology uses reclaimed CO₂ as the dyeing medium in a closed loop process. When pressurized, CO₂ becomes supercritical (SC-CO₂). In this state CO₂ has a very high solvent power, allowing the dye to dissolve easily.
Phenomics assisted breeding in crop improvementIshaGoswami9
As the population is increasing and will reach about 9 billion upto 2050. Also due to climate change, it is difficult to meet the food requirement of such a large population. Facing the challenges presented by resource shortages, climate
change, and increasing global population, crop yield and quality need to be improved in a sustainable way over the coming decades. Genetic improvement by breeding is the best way to increase crop productivity. With the rapid progression of functional
genomics, an increasing number of crop genomes have been sequenced and dozens of genes influencing key agronomic traits have been identified. However, current genome sequence information has not been adequately exploited for understanding
the complex characteristics of multiple gene, owing to a lack of crop phenotypic data. Efficient, automatic, and accurate technologies and platforms that can capture phenotypic data that can
be linked to genomics information for crop improvement at all growth stages have become as important as genotyping. Thus,
high-throughput phenotyping has become the major bottleneck restricting crop breeding. Plant phenomics has been defined as the high-throughput, accurate acquisition and analysis of multi-dimensional phenotypes
during crop growing stages at the organism level, including the cell, tissue, organ, individual plant, plot, and field levels. With the rapid development of novel sensors, imaging technology,
and analysis methods, numerous infrastructure platforms have been developed for phenotyping.
Describing and Interpreting an Immersive Learning Case with the Immersion Cub...Leonel Morgado
Current descriptions of immersive learning cases are often difficult or impossible to compare. This is due to a myriad of different options on what details to include, which aspects are relevant, and on the descriptive approaches employed. Also, these aspects often combine very specific details with more general guidelines or indicate intents and rationales without clarifying their implementation. In this paper we provide a method to describe immersive learning cases that is structured to enable comparisons, yet flexible enough to allow researchers and practitioners to decide which aspects to include. This method leverages a taxonomy that classifies educational aspects at three levels (uses, practices, and strategies) and then utilizes two frameworks, the Immersive Learning Brain and the Immersion Cube, to enable a structured description and interpretation of immersive learning cases. The method is then demonstrated on a published immersive learning case on training for wind turbine maintenance using virtual reality. Applying the method results in a structured artifact, the Immersive Learning Case Sheet, that tags the case with its proximal uses, practices, and strategies, and refines the free text case description to ensure that matching details are included. This contribution is thus a case description method in support of future comparative research of immersive learning cases. We then discuss how the resulting description and interpretation can be leveraged to change immersion learning cases, by enriching them (considering low-effort changes or additions) or innovating (exploring more challenging avenues of transformation). The method holds significant promise to support better-grounded research in immersive learning.
The ability to recreate computational results with minimal effort and actionable metrics provides a solid foundation for scientific research and software development. When people can replicate an analysis at the touch of a button using open-source software, open data, and methods to assess and compare proposals, it significantly eases verification of results, engagement with a diverse range of contributors, and progress. However, we have yet to fully achieve this; there are still many sociotechnical frictions.
Inspired by David Donoho's vision, this talk aims to revisit the three crucial pillars of frictionless reproducibility (data sharing, code sharing, and competitive challenges) with the perspective of deep software variability.
Our observation is that multiple layers — hardware, operating systems, third-party libraries, software versions, input data, compile-time options, and parameters — are subject to variability that exacerbates frictions but is also essential for achieving robust, generalizable results and fostering innovation. I will first review the literature, providing evidence of how the complex variability interactions across these layers affect qualitative and quantitative software properties, thereby complicating the reproduction and replication of scientific studies in various fields.
I will then present some software engineering and AI techniques that can support the strategic exploration of variability spaces. These include the use of abstractions and models (e.g., feature models), sampling strategies (e.g., uniform, random), cost-effective measurements (e.g., incremental build of software configurations), and dimensionality reduction methods (e.g., transfer learning, feature selection, software debloating).
I will finally argue that deep variability is both the problem and solution of frictionless reproducibility, calling the software science community to develop new methods and tools to manage variability and foster reproducibility in software systems.
Exposé invité Journées Nationales du GDR GPL 2024
ESPP presentation to EU Waste Water Network, 4th June 2024 “EU policies driving nutrient removal and recycling
and the revised UWWTD (Urban Waste Water Treatment Directive)”
3. Chemicals or molecules present in the living organisms are known
as Biomolecules
The sum total of different types of biomolecules, compounds and
ions present in a cell is called as cellular pool
Biomolecules are compounds of carbon.
Hence the chemistry of living organisms is organized around carbon
Carbon is the most versatile and the most predominant element of life.
ELEMENT Non living
(Earth crust)
Living Matter
Hydrogen 0.14 0.5
Carbon 0.03 18.5
Oxygen 46.6 65.0
Nitrogen Very less 3.3
Sulphur 0.03 0.3
Sodium 2.8 0.2
Calcium 3.6 1.5
Magnesium 2.1 0.1
Silicon 27.7 Very less
6. Biomolecule Building block Major functions
Protein Amino acid Basic structure and function
of cell
DNA Deoxyribonucleotide Hereditary information
RNA Ribonucleotide Protein synthesis
Polysaccharide Monosaccharide Storage form of energy
Lipids Fatty acids & glycerol Storage form of energy to
meet long term demands
THE MAJOR COMPLEX BIOMOLECULES
OF CELLS
15. CARBOHYDRATES
Carbohydrates are the most abundant organic molecules in nature.
The term carbohydrate is derived from the French term
hydrate de carbone i.e. it is a hydrate of carbon or Cn(H2O)n
Carbohydrates are defined as organic substances having C, H & O
Wherein H and O are in the ratio 2:1 as found in H2O
FUNCTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
- Most abundant source of energy (4 cal/g)
- Precursors for many organic compounds (fats, amino acids)
- Present as glycoproteins and glycolipids in the cell
memebrane and functions such as cell growth and fertilization
- Present as structural components like cellulose in plants,
exoskeleton of some insects, cell wall of microorganisms
- Storage form of energy (glycogen) to meet the energy
demands of the body.
16. CARBOHYDRATES
MONOSACCHARIDES OLIGOSACCHARIDES POLYSACCHARIDES
Basic units of carbohydrates
Cannot be hydrolysed into
smaller units
They can be further
hydrolysed
Non crystalline, non soluble
in water, tasteless, on
hydrolysis gives mol of
monosaccharides
e.g. starch , cellulose
a. Based on the no. of
C-atoms
a. Based on the type of
functional group
a. Disaccharides
b. Trisachharides
c. T
etrasachharides
17. MONOSACCHARIDES
Based on the no of C-atoms
- Trioses (C3H6O3)
e.g. Glyceraldehyde,
Dihydroxyacetone
- Tetroses (C4H8O4)
e.g. Erythrose, Threose
- Pentoses (C5H10O5)
e.g. Ribulose, Xylose
Arabinose
(deoxyribose – C5H10O4)
- Hexoses (C6H12O6)
e.g. glucose, fructose
galactose, mannose
- Heptoses (C7H14O7)
e.g. sedoheptulose
glucoheptose
Based on the functional group
- Aldoses : the functional group is
Aldehyde –CHO
e.g. Glyceraldehyde, glucose
- Ketoses : the functional
group is ketone
( C = O)
e.g. Dihydroxyacetone,
fructose
18. DERIVATIVES OF
MONOSACCHARIDES
1. Deoxy Sugars :
2. Amino Sugars :
3. Sugar Acid :
Deoxygenation of ribose produces deoxyribose,
which is a structural component of DNA
When 1 or more –OH groups of monosaccharides
are replaced by –NH2 (amino group) it forms an
amino sugar e.g. Glucosamine, which forms
chitin, fungal cellulose, hyaluronic acid.
Oxidation of –CHO or –OH group forms sugar
acids. Ascorbic acid is a sugar acid
4. Sugar alcohols : Reduction of aldoses or ketoses.
Glycerol and Mannitol.
19. OLIGOSACCHARIDES
They are formed by condensation of 2-9 monosaccharides
Depending upon the no. of monosachharide molecules they are :
a. Disaccharides (sucrose, lactose)
b. Trisaccharides (raffinose)
c. Tetrasaccharides (stachyose)
The smallest and the commonest oligosaccharides are Disaccharides
20. DISACCHARIDES
A disaccharide consists of 2 monosaccharide units (similar or dissimilar)
held together by a glycosidic bond
They are crysatalline, water soluble and sweet to taste.
MALTOSE : - is also called as malt sugar.
- made up of 2 glucose molecules
LACTOSE : - is also called as milk sugar as it is found naturally in
milk
- made up of glucose and galactose
- souring of milk is due to conversion of lactose to
lactic acid
SUCROSE : -is also called as cane sugar. It is the sugar found in
sugar cane and sugar beet
- most abundant among naturally occuring sugars.
- Important source of Dietary carbohydrates
- made up of glucose and fructose
21. POLYSACCHARIDES
- Also called as GLYCANS
- Made up of repeating units of monsaccharides held by glycosidic
bonds
- During its formation a water molecule is released at each
condensation
This helps reduce the bulk making it almost insoluble
decreasing its effect on the water potential or osmotic potential of
the cell
- Unlike sugars they are not sweet.
- They are ideal as STORAGE AND AS STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS
- They are of 2 types Homoglycans and Heteroglycans.
HOMOGLYCANS
-Made up of only 1 type of
monosaccharide monomers
-For eg starch, glycogen,
cellulose
-Glucan (made up of glucose)
-Fructan(made up of fructose)
-Galactan (made up of galactose)
HETEROGLYCANS
-Made up condensation of2 or
more types of monosaccharides
- For eg Hyaluronic acid, agar,
Chitin, peptidoglycans etc
22. STORAGE
POLYSACCHARIDES
STARCH
1. Carbohydrate reserve of plants and the most important dietary source
for animals
2. High content of starch in cereals, roots, tubers, vegetables etc.
3. Homopolymer made up of GLUCOSE units. Also called as GLUCAN.
4. Starch = Amylose + Amylopectin (polysaccharide components)
GLYCOGEN
1. Carbohydrate reserve in animals. Hence referred as animal starch
2. High concentration in Liver, muscles and brain.
3. Also found in plants that do not have chlorophyll (yeast and fungi)
4. GLUCOSE is the repeating unit.
INULIN
1. Polymer of fructose i.e. fructosan
2. Found in Dahlia, bulbs, garlic, onion etc
3. Easily soluble in water
4. Inulin is not readily metabolised in the human body and is readily filtered
through the kidney. Hence used for testing kidney function (GFR)
23. STRUCTURAL
POLYSACCHARIDES
CHITIN
1. Second most abundant organic substance.
2. Complex carbohydrate of Heteropolysaccharide type.
3. Found in the exoskeletons of some invertebrates like insects and
crustaceans. Provides both strength and elasticity.
4. Becomes hard when impregnated with calcium carbonate.
CELLULOSE
1. Occurs exclusively in plants and is the most abundant organic
substance in plant kingdom.
2. Predominant constituent of plant cell wall.
3. It is totally absent in animals.
25. PROTEINS
Most abundant organic molecules of the living system.
They form about 50% of the dry weight of the cell.
They are most important for the architecture and functioning
of the cell.
Proteins are polymers of amino acids
Proteins on complete hydrolysis yields Amino Acids
There are 20 standard amino acids which are repeatedly found
in the structure of proteins – animal, plant or microbial.
Collagen is the most abundant animal protein and Rubisco is
the most abundant plant protein
Protein Synthesis is controlled by DNA.
26. AMINO ACIDS
Amino acids are group of organic compounds
having 2 functional groups (-NH2) and (-COOH)
(-NH2) group is basic whereas (-COOH) is acidic
R- can be H in glycine, CH3 in alanine, Hydroxymethyl in serine
in others it can be hydrocarbon chain or a cyclic group
All amino acids contain C, H, O and N but some of them additionally
contain S
Physical and chemical properties of amino acids are due to
amino, carboxyl and R functional groups
Amino acids are differentiated into 7 groups
27. No. Nature Amino acids
1. NEUTRAL : Amino acids with 1 amino and 1
carboxyl group
Glycine (Gly), Alanine (Ala),
Valine (Val), Leucine (Leu),
Isoleucine (Ile)
2. ACIDIC : 1 extra carboxyl group Aspartic acid (Asp),
Asparagine (Asn), Glutamic
acid (Glu), Glutamine (Gln)
3. BASIC : 1 extra amino group Arginine (Arg), Lysine (Lys)
4. S – CONTAINING : Amino acids have sulphur Cysteine (Cys), Methionine
(Met)
5. ALCOHOLIC : Amino acids having –OH group Serine (Ser), Threonine
(Thr), Tyrosine (Tyr)
6. AROMATIC : Amino acids having cyclic
structure
Phenylalanine (Phe),
Tryptophan (try)
7. HETEROCYCLIC : amino acids having N in
ring structure
Histidine (His), Proline (Pro)
29. PEPTIDE
FORMATION
Amino acids are linked serially by peptide
bonds (-CONH-) formed between the
(-NH2) of one amino acid and the
(-COOH) of adjacent amino acid
Chain having 2 amino acids linked by a
peptide bond is called as a DIPEPTIDE
The sequence of amino acids present in
a polypeptide is specific for a particular
protein.
30. STRUCTURE OF
PROTEIN
4 basic structural levels are assigned to
proteins – primary, secondary, tertiary
and quaternary
PRIMARY
The primary structure refers to the number
and linear sequence of amino acids in the
polypeptide chain and the location of the
disulphide bridges
The primary structure is responsible for the
function of the protein.
The N-terminal amino acid is written on the
left side whereas the C- terminal amino acid
is written on the right side
31. SECONDARY
The folding of the linear chain into a specific coiled
structure is called as secondary structure.
3 types : α- helix, β- pleated sheet and collagen
helix
α- helix β- pleated sheet Collagen helix
32. TERTIARY
The helical polypeptide may fold upon itself and assume a complex but
specific form – spherical, rod like or something in between.
These geometrical shapes are known as tertiary (30) structure
QUATERNARY
Proteins are said to be quaternary in structure
If they have 2 or more polypeptide chains
Haemoglobin is an excellent example
35. Functional
classification
Structural proteins e.g. keratin, collagen
Enzymatic proteins e.g. pepsin
Transport proteins e.g. Haemoglobin
Hormonal proteins e.g. Insulin, Growth hormone
Contractile proteins e.g. Actin, myosin
Storage proteins e.g. Ovalbumin
Genetic proteins e.g. Nucleoproteins
Defence proteins e.g. Imunoglobulins
Receptor proteins e.g. for hormones and viruses
36. CLASSIFICATION BASED
ON CHEMICAL NATURE
AND SOLUBILITY
1. Simple proteins : They are composed only of amino acid
residues
2. Conjugated proteins : Along with amino acids , there is a
non-protein prosthetic group.
3. Derived proteins : They are denatured or degraded products
of the above two
38. With the water, I say, Touch me not,
To the tongue, I am tasteful,
Within limits, I am dutiful, In
excess, I am dangerous
LIPIDS
39. Lipids are the chief concentrated storage form of energy forming
about 3.5% of the cell content.
Lipids are organic substances relatively insoluble in water but
soluble in organic solvents (alcohol, ether)
Functions :
1. They are the concentrated fuel reserve of the body.
2. Lipids are constituents of membrane structure and regulate the
membrane permeability.
3. They serve as source of fat soluble vitamins
4. Lipids are important cellular metabolic regulators
5. Lipds protect the internal organs and serve as insulating materials
41. SIMPLE LIPIDS
They are esters of fatty acids with alcohol. They are of 2 types :
1. Neutral or true fats : Esters of fatty acids with glycerol
2. Waxes : Esters of fatty acids with alcohol other than glycerol.
Neutral / True
fats
True fats are made up of C, H, & O but O is less
A fat molecule is made up of 2 components :
a) GLYCEROL
b) FATTY ACIDS (1-3 mol, of same or diff long chained)
42. GLYCER
OL
A glycerol mol has 3 carbons each bearing a
–OH group
Fatty acid
A fatty acid mol is an unbranched chain of C-
atoms.
It has a –COOH group at one end and a H
bonded to almost all the C-atoms
Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated
43. WAXES
Lipids which are long chain saturated fatty acids and a long chain
Saturated alcohol of high mol wt other than glycerol
Example :
1. Bees wax : secretion of abdominal glands of worker honey bees
2. Lanolin or wool fat : Secretion of cutaneous glands and obtained
from the wool of sheep
3. Sebum : secretion of sebaceous glands of skin
4. Cerumen : soft and brownish waxy secretion of the glands in the
external auditory canal. Also called as Earwax
5. Plant wax : Coating formed on the plant organs to prevent
transpiration
6. Paraffin wax : A translucent waxy substance obtained from
petroleum
44. COMPLEX
LIPIDS
dr.aarif
They are derivatives of simple lipids having
additional group like phosphate, N2-base,
Protein etc. They are further divided into
Phospholipids, Glycolipids, Lipoproteins.
Phospholipid They are made up of a molecule of glycerol
Or other alcohol having
1. A phos group at 1 of its –OH groups
2. 2 fatty acid molecules at other 2 –OH
groups
3. A nitrogen containing base attatched to
phos group
A phospholipid molecule has a
hydrophobic tail (fatty acids) and a
hydrophilic head(phos group)
45. GLYCOLIPID
They are components of cell
membranes, particularly myelin
sheath and chloroplast membranes
CEREBROSIDE are the most
simplest form of glycolipids
46. LIPOPROTEIN
They contain lipids and proteins in their molecules.
They are main constituent of membranes.
They are found in milk and Egg yolk.
Lipids are transported in blood and lymph as lipoproteins.
5 types of lipoproteins :
1. chylomicrons
2. VLDL
3. LDL
4. HDL
5. Free fatty acid albumin complex
47. DERIVED
LIPIDS
• THEY ARE MADE UP OF 4 FUSED
CARBON RINGS
• CHOLESTEROL, VIT D,
TESTOSTERONE,
ADRENOCORTICAL HORMONES.
• THE MOST COMMON STEROIDS ARE
• STEROLS.
• COMMON STEROLS ARE
CHOLESTEROL AND
They are derivatives obtained on the
hydrolysis of the simple and complex lipids.
e.g. steroids, terpenes and prostaglandins
Steroid The steroids do not contain fatty acids
but are included in lipids as they have
fat-like properties.
48. TERPENES
Terpenes are a major component of essential oils produced by
plants. They give fragrance to the plant parts.
Vitamins A, E and K contain a terpenoid called phytol
Carotenoid pigment is precursor for Vitamin A
Lycopene, a pigment present in tomatoes is a terpenoid
Gibberellins, the plant hormone is also a terpene
50. Enzymes are a group of catalysts functioning in a biological system
They are usually proteinaceous substances produced by the living cell
Without themselves getting affected.
Enzymes enhance the rate of reaction and are formed in the cell
under the instructions of genes
ENZYMOLOGY is the branch of science that deals with the study of
Enzymes in all the aspects like nomenclature, reactions and
functions
Enzymes occur in colloidal state and are often produced in inactive
form called proenzymes (zymogen), which are converted to their
active forms by specific factors like pH, substrate etc.
The enzymes that are produced within a cell for metabolic
activities are known as endoenzymes and those which act away
from the site of synthesis are called exo-enzymes
51. GENERAL PROPERTIES OF ENZYME ANDFACTORS
AFFECTING THEIRACTIVITY
1) Enzymes accelerate the reaction but do not initiate it.
2)Enzymes themselves do not participate in the reaction and remain
unchanged at the end of the reaction. Enzymes, are therefore,
needed in small amounts.
3) The molecule of an enzyme is larger than that of substrate
molecule and hence during reaction a specific part of enzyme
molecule comes in contact with the substrate molecule. That part is
called active site of enzyme.
4)Amphoteric nature: Chemically most of the enzymes are proteins
and, therefore, show amphoteric nature. The enzymes can react with
acidic substances as well as alkaline substances.
52. 5) Specificity: Most of the enzymes are specific in their action. A
single enzyme acts upon a single substrate or a group of
closely related substrates.
For example, the enzyme urease can act only upon urea
invertase can act upon sucrose only
A slight change in the configuration of the substrate molecule
requires action by a different enzyme.
6)Colloidal nature: All enzymes are colloidal in nature and thus
provide large surface area for reaction to take place. Colloids
(colloids- gel like) are mixtures of two components i.e. dispersed
particles and dispersion medium. The size of the dispersed
particles is larger than dispersion medium.
53. 7) Enzyme optima : Enzymes generally work best under certain
narrowly defined conditions referred to as optima. These include
appropriate temperature and PH.
a) Temperature sensitivity : Since the enzymes are proteins, they
are affected by change in temperature. With increase in temperature,
increase in enzyme activity takes place (up to 40 C). However,
when temperature increases above 60 C the proteins undergo
denaturation or even complete breakdown. When the temperature
is reduced to freezing point or below freezing point the enzymes
become inactivated but they are not destroyed. The rate of reaction
is more at optimum temperature.
b)pH sensitivity : Most of the enzymes are specific to pH and
remain active within particular range of pH. The strong acid or strong
base denatures enzymes. Most of the intracellular enzymes function
best around neutral pH
54. 8)Concentration of enzyme and substrate : The rate of reaction
is proportionate to the concentration of the reacting molecules. If the
substrate concentration is increased the rate of enzyme action
also increases up to certain limit. Beyond a certain concentration, the
enzyme molecules remain saturated with substrate molecules and
the activity becomes steady.
9)Enzyme inhibitors : Enzyme inhibitors are certain products
which inhibit enzyme activity. During the reaction, if the active site
of enzyme is occupied by these inhibitors instead of substrate
molecules and the activity of enzyme is lost. These substances are
like substrate molecules in their structure and are called
competitive inhibitors.
55. Group of Enzymes Reactions catalysed Examples
1. Oxidoreductases Transfer of O2 or H2 atoms
or electrons from one
substrate to another
Dehydrogenase
Oxidases
2.Transferases Transfer of a specific group
from one substrate to
another
Transaminase
3.Hydrolases Hydrolysis of a substrate Digestive enzymes
4. Isomerases Change of the molecular
form of the substrate
Phospho Hexo
isomerase
5.Lyases Non hydrolytic removal or
addition of a group to a
substrate
Decarboxylase
Aldolase
6. Ligases Joining of 2 molecules by
formation of new bonds
Citric acid
synthetase