The document provides information on cell biology. It describes the anatomy of the cell including organelles like the nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, and Golgi apparatus. It also summarizes macromolecules like carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Additional topics covered include DNA, chromosomes, genes, transcription, translation, the cell cycle, cellular respiration, photosynthesis, and cell communication.
DNA, chromosomes and genomes Notes based on molecular biology of the cell. Biology Elite: biologyelite.weebly.com, please use together with the presentation
How cells read the genome from DNA to protein NotesYi Fan Chen
The document summarizes the process of transcription and translation in cells. It describes:
1) Transcription of DNA to RNA which is catalyzed by RNA polymerase and involves the formation of RNA through the addition of ribonucleotides.
2) Processing of eukaryotic pre-mRNA which involves capping, splicing, and polyadenylation to form mature mRNA.
3) Translation of mRNA to protein which occurs on ribosomes and involves tRNAs carrying amino acids that are linked together through peptide bond formation catalyzed by the ribosome. Accuracy is ensured by induced fit binding and kinetic proofreading.
Introduction to nucleic acid, chemistry of nucleotiides , july 2020enamifat
This document provides an introduction to nucleic acids, their components, and chemistry. It can be summarized as follows:
1. Nucleic acids are high molecular weight polymers composed of nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds. The nucleotides contain a pentose sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.
2. DNA contains deoxyribose and RNA contains ribose. The nitrogenous bases in DNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine, while in RNA thymine is replaced by uracil.
3. Nucleotides are the monomers that make up nucleic acids. They contain a nucleoside (pentose sugar + nitrogenous base), and one or more phosphate groups
Nucleic acids are macromolecules found in all cells that are involved in storing and transmitting genetic information. There are two main types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA. DNA contains the cell's genetic instructions and is located in the nucleus. It takes the shape of a double helix and can make copies of itself. RNA assists in carrying out the instructions in DNA and helps make proteins. Both DNA and RNA are made up of nucleotides, which consist of a nitrogenous base, a 5-carbon sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA), and a phosphate group. Nucleoproteins are proteins linked to nucleic acids and are important components of chromosomes.
The document discusses the composition and structure of nucleic acids. It defines nucleic acids as polymers of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. DNA and RNA are two types of nucleic acids that differ in their sugar component - DNA contains deoxyribose while RNA contains ribose. The bases found in DNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, and in RNA, uracil replaces thymine. Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information through the processes of replication, transcription, and translation.
A Slideshow for Gr 12 Life Sciences students, focussing on aspects of nucleic acids and protein synthesis. It contains helpful information on DNA, RNA, DNA replication, transcription, translation, the importance of nucleic acids and genetic fingerprinting.
This document discusses post-translational modifications (PTMs), which are enzymatic modifications of proteins after translation. It describes various types of PTMs like trimming, covalent attachments through phosphorylation, glycosylation, sulfation, methylation, and hydroxylation. The importance of PTMs in regulating protein function and cellular processes is highlighted. Detection methods for PTMs like mass spectrometry and fluorescent staining are also mentioned.
Post-transcriptional modifications help process primary transcripts into mRNA in three main ways: 1) 5' capping protects the transcript and aids export from the nucleus, 2) Polyadenylation aids stability and transport, and 3) Splicing removes introns and ligates exons to form mature mRNA. In eukaryotes, this occurs in the nucleus and is essential for efficient translation. It can also result in alternative splicing to increase protein diversity from a single gene.
DNA, chromosomes and genomes Notes based on molecular biology of the cell. Biology Elite: biologyelite.weebly.com, please use together with the presentation
How cells read the genome from DNA to protein NotesYi Fan Chen
The document summarizes the process of transcription and translation in cells. It describes:
1) Transcription of DNA to RNA which is catalyzed by RNA polymerase and involves the formation of RNA through the addition of ribonucleotides.
2) Processing of eukaryotic pre-mRNA which involves capping, splicing, and polyadenylation to form mature mRNA.
3) Translation of mRNA to protein which occurs on ribosomes and involves tRNAs carrying amino acids that are linked together through peptide bond formation catalyzed by the ribosome. Accuracy is ensured by induced fit binding and kinetic proofreading.
Introduction to nucleic acid, chemistry of nucleotiides , july 2020enamifat
This document provides an introduction to nucleic acids, their components, and chemistry. It can be summarized as follows:
1. Nucleic acids are high molecular weight polymers composed of nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds. The nucleotides contain a pentose sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.
2. DNA contains deoxyribose and RNA contains ribose. The nitrogenous bases in DNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine, while in RNA thymine is replaced by uracil.
3. Nucleotides are the monomers that make up nucleic acids. They contain a nucleoside (pentose sugar + nitrogenous base), and one or more phosphate groups
Nucleic acids are macromolecules found in all cells that are involved in storing and transmitting genetic information. There are two main types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA. DNA contains the cell's genetic instructions and is located in the nucleus. It takes the shape of a double helix and can make copies of itself. RNA assists in carrying out the instructions in DNA and helps make proteins. Both DNA and RNA are made up of nucleotides, which consist of a nitrogenous base, a 5-carbon sugar (ribose in RNA and deoxyribose in DNA), and a phosphate group. Nucleoproteins are proteins linked to nucleic acids and are important components of chromosomes.
The document discusses the composition and structure of nucleic acids. It defines nucleic acids as polymers of nucleotides, which consist of a sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. DNA and RNA are two types of nucleic acids that differ in their sugar component - DNA contains deoxyribose while RNA contains ribose. The bases found in DNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, and in RNA, uracil replaces thymine. Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information through the processes of replication, transcription, and translation.
A Slideshow for Gr 12 Life Sciences students, focussing on aspects of nucleic acids and protein synthesis. It contains helpful information on DNA, RNA, DNA replication, transcription, translation, the importance of nucleic acids and genetic fingerprinting.
This document discusses post-translational modifications (PTMs), which are enzymatic modifications of proteins after translation. It describes various types of PTMs like trimming, covalent attachments through phosphorylation, glycosylation, sulfation, methylation, and hydroxylation. The importance of PTMs in regulating protein function and cellular processes is highlighted. Detection methods for PTMs like mass spectrometry and fluorescent staining are also mentioned.
Post-transcriptional modifications help process primary transcripts into mRNA in three main ways: 1) 5' capping protects the transcript and aids export from the nucleus, 2) Polyadenylation aids stability and transport, and 3) Splicing removes introns and ligates exons to form mature mRNA. In eukaryotes, this occurs in the nucleus and is essential for efficient translation. It can also result in alternative splicing to increase protein diversity from a single gene.
Translation and post-translational modification involve protein synthesis and processing. The genetic code specifies amino acids via mRNA codons. Protein synthesis occurs via five stages on ribosomes: 1) amino acid activation, 2) initiation, 3) elongation, 4) termination, and 5) folding and post-translational modifications. Post-translational modifications are important for protein activation and include phosphorylation, glycosylation, and ubiquitination.
This document provides an overview of nucleotides, nucleic acids, and DNA/RNA structure. It discusses the components of nucleotides, including sugars, phosphates, and nitrogenous bases. Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds. The two main nucleic acids are DNA and RNA. DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose and thymine, while RNA contains ribose and uracil. DNA generally takes the form of a double helix with base pairing between adenine-thymine and guanine-cytosine. RNA can have various structures and functions such as mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
This document provides information about protein synthesis and the role of genes in controlling cellular activities. It discusses how DNA contains instructions in genes that are used to produce mRNA through transcription. The mRNA then directs protein synthesis through translation with the help of tRNA. Proteins fold into complex 3D structures determined by amino acid sequences that allow them to perform specific functions. Issues can arise if errors occur during protein production.
This document provides an overview of gene structures and functions, including:
- The chemical composition and structure of DNA, including the four nitrogenous bases that make up DNA.
- How genes are located on chromosomes in the nucleus and code for the development and phenotype of organisms.
- The process of DNA transcription to mRNA and mRNA translation to proteins, known as the central dogma of molecular biology. Key elements like transcription, splicing, and translation are summarized.
- Different types of RNA involved in gene expression, including mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, and others.
- How genetic information flows from DNA to protein and the relationship between genes and proteins.
Epigenetics, including DNA methylation, chromatin remodeling, and RNA interference, can be used as tools to improve fungal strains for biotechnology. Three main levels of epigenetic regulation are DNA methylation, histone modification through chromatin remodeling, and RNA interference. Research has shown that targeting chromatin modification through histone methyltransferases, deacetylases, and other enzymes that regulate gene expression promises to be an effective approach for strain improvement, though DNA methylation appears to play a more limited role in fungi. Future work is likely to focus on exploiting these epigenetic mechanisms, particularly histone modifiers, to optimize fungal strains for industrial applications.
DNA replication, transcription, and translationjun de la Ceruz
The document provides information about DNA, RNA, transcription, and translation. It defines the key components and structures of DNA and RNA, including sugars, phosphates, and nitrogenous bases. It explains the differences between DNA and RNA, such as DNA being double-stranded and containing deoxyribose and thymine, while RNA is single-stranded and contains ribose and uracil. The document also describes transcription, which occurs in the nucleus and produces mRNA from DNA, and translation, which occurs in the cytoplasm and uses mRNA to produce a polypeptide chain through the actions of tRNA and the ribosome.
These slides may be helpful for grabbing basic knowledge regarding Nucleic acids for the students of Microbiology, Biochemistry, Nursing, Agriculture, Veterinary,Pharmacy..etc
The document discusses various topics related to biosynthesis of nucleic acids and proteins, including:
1. The central dogma of molecular biology whereby DNA is transcribed into RNA which is then translated into protein.
2. Key discoveries like the double helix structure of DNA by Watson and Crick in 1953.
3. The process of DNA replication including required components, enzymes, and semi-conservative nature.
4. Transcription and post-transcriptional modifications of pre-mRNA in eukaryotes including 5' capping, polyadenylation, and splicing of introns.
5. Translation including formation of aminoacyl-tRNAs, initiation and elongation at the ribosome
First aid for usmle step 1 with uworld and nbme notes sampleusmlematerialsnet
First Aid For USMLE Step 1 with Uworld and NBME Notes
Download Full book from > usmlematerials.net
Pages: 798
Series: First Aid for the USMLE Step 1
NBMEs and Uworld Notes are added to this file.
TRANSLATION & POST - TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONSYESANNA
The document discusses various aspects of translation - the process by which the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA is used to direct the synthesis of a polypeptide chain. It describes how the genetic code is used to translate mRNA into a protein via tRNA and the ribosome. Key points covered include codon-anticodon interactions, the roles of initiation and elongation factors, and termination of protein synthesis.
This PowerPoint is applicable for the medical, paramedical, and all the life science students who read the mechanism of gene expression. This is equally useful for teachers as well. This is the comprehensive coverage on the aforementioned topic.
- Frederic Miesher first isolated nucleic acid from salmon sperm in 1869, naming it nuclein.
- In 1920, Jones proved there are two types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA.
- In 1953, Watson and Crick used data from Franklin and others to discover that DNA is a double helix with complementary base pairing between strands.
DNA and RNA differ in their chemical structures. While DNA is double-stranded, RNA is single-stranded. There are four main types of RNA - messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and small stable RNA. mRNA carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosome. It is modified with a 5' cap and 3' poly-A tail. tRNA transfers amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain during protein synthesis. rRNA makes up the ribosomal subunits and is involved in protein synthesis.
Watson and Crick determined DNA structure is a double helix of nucleotides with bases that pair together. DNA is replicated through a semi-conservative process where each old strand acts as a template for a new complementary strand. Errors during replication can lead to mutations in the DNA sequence. During protein synthesis, the DNA code is transcribed into mRNA which is then translated by ribosomes into a polypeptide chain according to the base sequence of codons.
Protein synthesis and trafficking involves two main stages - transcription and translation. Transcription occurs in the nucleus and involves copying information from DNA to mRNA. Translation occurs in the cytoplasm and involves using the mRNA code to assemble amino acids into proteins. Proteins are targeted to different locations through signal sequences and trafficking pathways. Newly synthesized proteins enter the endoplasmic reticulum and are modified and sorted in the Golgi apparatus before being targeted to their final destinations inside or outside the cell through secretory vesicles.
DNA molecules are made up of nucleotides, which each consist of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. Nucleotides are linked together through covalent bonds between the sugar and phosphate groups to form polynucleotides. The sequence of bases along the DNA polymer is unique to each gene. DNA contains the genetic instructions to direct the development, functioning and reproduction of living organisms. While only about 1.5% of human DNA actually codes for proteins, recent evidence indicates non-coding DNA also plays important roles in the cell.
This document provides learning materials on heredity and genetics for a 10th grade science class. It includes activities and questions to help students understand how protein is made from DNA information, and how mutations can cause changes in protein structure and function. The first activity involves building a DNA model to demonstrate replication. The second has students labeling DNA and RNA components in a comparison table. The third analyzes gene sequences to identify mutations. The document explains the central dogma of biology and how DNA is transcribed into RNA and translated into protein. It also describes different types of genetic mutations and their effects.
Genes contain DNA that controls the production of RNA and proteins. DNA is made up of nucleotides containing a sugar, phosphate, and one of four nitrogenous bases. The order of bases in DNA forms the genetic code, with three bases making up a codon that controls the insertion of amino acids in proteins. RNA is similar to DNA but contains the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose and the base uracil instead of thymine. During transcription, an enzyme helps copy the genetic code from DNA into messenger RNA, which then directs protein production. Cellular functions are regulated by genetic and enzyme mechanisms, with genes and enzymes able to be activated or inhibited in feedback loops that control levels of biochemicals and proteins.
Nucleic acids RNA and DNA are macromolecules found in tissues with large nuclei. They are the prosthetic groups of nucleoproteins. There are two main types of nucleic acids - RNA and DNA. RNA exists as a single strand and is involved in protein synthesis. DNA has a double helix structure and acts as the genetic material to store and transmit hereditary information. Nucleoproteins are important as they are associated with chromosomes, act as cofactors for enzymes, and play a role in energy transfer in living organisms.
Nucleic Acid Chemistry Of Purine and Pyrimidine Ribonucleotide Part I MD1 By ...princeprefa
This document discusses nucleic acid structure and gene expression. It begins by introducing nucleotides, which are the monomers that make up nucleic acids like DNA and RNA. They consist of a nitrogenous base, a 5-carbon sugar, and phosphate groups. The document then summarizes the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that DNA is transcribed into RNA which is translated into protein. It describes the structure of DNA as a double helix with complementary base pairing, and RNA as generally single-stranded. The document concludes by discussing DNA replication and the cell cycle.
Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store genetic information and enable protein production. Nucleic acids include DNA and RNA. These molecules are composed of long strands of nucleotides. Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group.
Translation and post-translational modification involve protein synthesis and processing. The genetic code specifies amino acids via mRNA codons. Protein synthesis occurs via five stages on ribosomes: 1) amino acid activation, 2) initiation, 3) elongation, 4) termination, and 5) folding and post-translational modifications. Post-translational modifications are important for protein activation and include phosphorylation, glycosylation, and ubiquitination.
This document provides an overview of nucleotides, nucleic acids, and DNA/RNA structure. It discusses the components of nucleotides, including sugars, phosphates, and nitrogenous bases. Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides linked by phosphodiester bonds. The two main nucleic acids are DNA and RNA. DNA contains the sugar deoxyribose and thymine, while RNA contains ribose and uracil. DNA generally takes the form of a double helix with base pairing between adenine-thymine and guanine-cytosine. RNA can have various structures and functions such as mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA.
This document provides information about protein synthesis and the role of genes in controlling cellular activities. It discusses how DNA contains instructions in genes that are used to produce mRNA through transcription. The mRNA then directs protein synthesis through translation with the help of tRNA. Proteins fold into complex 3D structures determined by amino acid sequences that allow them to perform specific functions. Issues can arise if errors occur during protein production.
This document provides an overview of gene structures and functions, including:
- The chemical composition and structure of DNA, including the four nitrogenous bases that make up DNA.
- How genes are located on chromosomes in the nucleus and code for the development and phenotype of organisms.
- The process of DNA transcription to mRNA and mRNA translation to proteins, known as the central dogma of molecular biology. Key elements like transcription, splicing, and translation are summarized.
- Different types of RNA involved in gene expression, including mRNA, tRNA, rRNA, and others.
- How genetic information flows from DNA to protein and the relationship between genes and proteins.
Epigenetics, including DNA methylation, chromatin remodeling, and RNA interference, can be used as tools to improve fungal strains for biotechnology. Three main levels of epigenetic regulation are DNA methylation, histone modification through chromatin remodeling, and RNA interference. Research has shown that targeting chromatin modification through histone methyltransferases, deacetylases, and other enzymes that regulate gene expression promises to be an effective approach for strain improvement, though DNA methylation appears to play a more limited role in fungi. Future work is likely to focus on exploiting these epigenetic mechanisms, particularly histone modifiers, to optimize fungal strains for industrial applications.
DNA replication, transcription, and translationjun de la Ceruz
The document provides information about DNA, RNA, transcription, and translation. It defines the key components and structures of DNA and RNA, including sugars, phosphates, and nitrogenous bases. It explains the differences between DNA and RNA, such as DNA being double-stranded and containing deoxyribose and thymine, while RNA is single-stranded and contains ribose and uracil. The document also describes transcription, which occurs in the nucleus and produces mRNA from DNA, and translation, which occurs in the cytoplasm and uses mRNA to produce a polypeptide chain through the actions of tRNA and the ribosome.
These slides may be helpful for grabbing basic knowledge regarding Nucleic acids for the students of Microbiology, Biochemistry, Nursing, Agriculture, Veterinary,Pharmacy..etc
The document discusses various topics related to biosynthesis of nucleic acids and proteins, including:
1. The central dogma of molecular biology whereby DNA is transcribed into RNA which is then translated into protein.
2. Key discoveries like the double helix structure of DNA by Watson and Crick in 1953.
3. The process of DNA replication including required components, enzymes, and semi-conservative nature.
4. Transcription and post-transcriptional modifications of pre-mRNA in eukaryotes including 5' capping, polyadenylation, and splicing of introns.
5. Translation including formation of aminoacyl-tRNAs, initiation and elongation at the ribosome
First aid for usmle step 1 with uworld and nbme notes sampleusmlematerialsnet
First Aid For USMLE Step 1 with Uworld and NBME Notes
Download Full book from > usmlematerials.net
Pages: 798
Series: First Aid for the USMLE Step 1
NBMEs and Uworld Notes are added to this file.
TRANSLATION & POST - TRANSLATIONAL MODIFICATIONSYESANNA
The document discusses various aspects of translation - the process by which the sequence of nucleotides in mRNA is used to direct the synthesis of a polypeptide chain. It describes how the genetic code is used to translate mRNA into a protein via tRNA and the ribosome. Key points covered include codon-anticodon interactions, the roles of initiation and elongation factors, and termination of protein synthesis.
This PowerPoint is applicable for the medical, paramedical, and all the life science students who read the mechanism of gene expression. This is equally useful for teachers as well. This is the comprehensive coverage on the aforementioned topic.
- Frederic Miesher first isolated nucleic acid from salmon sperm in 1869, naming it nuclein.
- In 1920, Jones proved there are two types of nucleic acids: DNA and RNA.
- In 1953, Watson and Crick used data from Franklin and others to discover that DNA is a double helix with complementary base pairing between strands.
DNA and RNA differ in their chemical structures. While DNA is double-stranded, RNA is single-stranded. There are four main types of RNA - messenger RNA (mRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA (rRNA), and small stable RNA. mRNA carries genetic information from DNA to the ribosome. It is modified with a 5' cap and 3' poly-A tail. tRNA transfers amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain during protein synthesis. rRNA makes up the ribosomal subunits and is involved in protein synthesis.
Watson and Crick determined DNA structure is a double helix of nucleotides with bases that pair together. DNA is replicated through a semi-conservative process where each old strand acts as a template for a new complementary strand. Errors during replication can lead to mutations in the DNA sequence. During protein synthesis, the DNA code is transcribed into mRNA which is then translated by ribosomes into a polypeptide chain according to the base sequence of codons.
Protein synthesis and trafficking involves two main stages - transcription and translation. Transcription occurs in the nucleus and involves copying information from DNA to mRNA. Translation occurs in the cytoplasm and involves using the mRNA code to assemble amino acids into proteins. Proteins are targeted to different locations through signal sequences and trafficking pathways. Newly synthesized proteins enter the endoplasmic reticulum and are modified and sorted in the Golgi apparatus before being targeted to their final destinations inside or outside the cell through secretory vesicles.
DNA molecules are made up of nucleotides, which each consist of a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. Nucleotides are linked together through covalent bonds between the sugar and phosphate groups to form polynucleotides. The sequence of bases along the DNA polymer is unique to each gene. DNA contains the genetic instructions to direct the development, functioning and reproduction of living organisms. While only about 1.5% of human DNA actually codes for proteins, recent evidence indicates non-coding DNA also plays important roles in the cell.
This document provides learning materials on heredity and genetics for a 10th grade science class. It includes activities and questions to help students understand how protein is made from DNA information, and how mutations can cause changes in protein structure and function. The first activity involves building a DNA model to demonstrate replication. The second has students labeling DNA and RNA components in a comparison table. The third analyzes gene sequences to identify mutations. The document explains the central dogma of biology and how DNA is transcribed into RNA and translated into protein. It also describes different types of genetic mutations and their effects.
Genes contain DNA that controls the production of RNA and proteins. DNA is made up of nucleotides containing a sugar, phosphate, and one of four nitrogenous bases. The order of bases in DNA forms the genetic code, with three bases making up a codon that controls the insertion of amino acids in proteins. RNA is similar to DNA but contains the sugar ribose instead of deoxyribose and the base uracil instead of thymine. During transcription, an enzyme helps copy the genetic code from DNA into messenger RNA, which then directs protein production. Cellular functions are regulated by genetic and enzyme mechanisms, with genes and enzymes able to be activated or inhibited in feedback loops that control levels of biochemicals and proteins.
Nucleic acids RNA and DNA are macromolecules found in tissues with large nuclei. They are the prosthetic groups of nucleoproteins. There are two main types of nucleic acids - RNA and DNA. RNA exists as a single strand and is involved in protein synthesis. DNA has a double helix structure and acts as the genetic material to store and transmit hereditary information. Nucleoproteins are important as they are associated with chromosomes, act as cofactors for enzymes, and play a role in energy transfer in living organisms.
Nucleic Acid Chemistry Of Purine and Pyrimidine Ribonucleotide Part I MD1 By ...princeprefa
This document discusses nucleic acid structure and gene expression. It begins by introducing nucleotides, which are the monomers that make up nucleic acids like DNA and RNA. They consist of a nitrogenous base, a 5-carbon sugar, and phosphate groups. The document then summarizes the central dogma of molecular biology, which states that DNA is transcribed into RNA which is translated into protein. It describes the structure of DNA as a double helix with complementary base pairing, and RNA as generally single-stranded. The document concludes by discussing DNA replication and the cell cycle.
Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store genetic information and enable protein production. Nucleic acids include DNA and RNA. These molecules are composed of long strands of nucleotides. Nucleotides are composed of a nitrogenous base, a five-carbon sugar, and a phosphate group.
The document discusses translation and post-translational modifications. It begins by describing the central dogma and differences between RNA and DNA. It then discusses the types of RNA (mRNA, rRNA, tRNA), RNA processing in eukaryotes, tRNA structure, the process of translation including initiation, elongation, and termination, and post-translational modifications including different types like phosphorylation and glycosylation. It also discusses protein synthesis inhibitors, chemical modifications of proteins, and diseases related to post-translational modifications.
Nucleic acids are macromolecules that store genetic information and provide instructions for building proteins. There are two main types: DNA and RNA. DNA contains the genetic blueprint in the form of a double-stranded structure located in the cell's nucleus. RNA is single-stranded and involved in protein synthesis. The central dogma of molecular biology describes how DNA is transcribed into RNA then translated into proteins. DNA replication is the process where DNA makes a copy of itself during cell division which involves unwinding of the DNA double helix, addition of nucleotides to form new strands, and production of two identical DNA molecules.
This document discusses nucleotide chemistry and nucleic acid chemistry. It covers the structures of nucleotides, nucleosides, and nucleic acids including DNA and RNA. Some key points include:
- Nucleotides are composed of a pentose sugar, phosphate group, and a nitrogenous base. DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides.
- DNA exists as a double helix with complementary base pairing between strands. It can undergo denaturation and renaturation.
- RNA includes tRNA, mRNA, rRNA and other non-coding RNA. tRNA forms a cloverleaf structure and carries amino acids. mRNA encodes proteins.
- Prokaryotes like bacteria have circular chromosomes without nuclei, while eukaryotes package
This document covers DNA replication, transcription, translation and gene expression. It discusses how DNA is copied through semi-conservative replication involving enzymes like DNA polymerase and how genes are expressed through transcription of DNA to mRNA and translation of mRNA to proteins. It also summarizes control of gene expression in prokaryotes through operons and in eukaryotes at multiple stages. Finally, it briefly touches on gene mutations, cancer and genetic modification of plants.
The document discusses key processes involved in gene expression and protein synthesis, including DNA replication, transcription, and translation. It provides details on:
1) DNA replication through semiconservative replication where each new DNA double helix contains one original and one new strand synthesized in the 5' to 3' direction.
2) Transcription of DNA into mRNA which is then translated into proteins with the help of tRNA and the ribosome.
3) Translation of mRNA into polypeptide chains using the genetic code where codons in mRNA are recognized by anticodons in tRNA to add amino acids in the correct sequence. Translation terminates when a stop codon is reached.
Pyrimidine synthesis occurs in six steps:
1) Carbamoyl phosphate is synthesized from glutamine and bicarbonate
2) Carbamoyl aspartate is formed from carbamoyl phosphate and aspartate
3) Dihydroorotate is formed via ring closure of carbamoyl aspartate
4) Dihydroorotate is oxidized to orotate
5) Orotate reacts with PRPP to form OMP
6) OMP is decarboxylated to form UMP
This document discusses nucleic acids, DNA, RNA, their structures and functions. It describes that nucleic acids are made up of nucleotides containing a sugar, phosphate and a base. The bases in DNA are adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine, while in RNA thymine is replaced with uracil. It explains the primary and secondary structures of DNA including the double helix structure. It also summarizes the central dogma of biology regarding DNA replication, transcription and translation of DNA to mRNA to proteins. The document concludes with a discussion of mutations that can occur during DNA replication and an overview of cloning techniques.
DNA, RNA, and proteins are the basic components of molecular biology. DNA stores genetic information and is replicated for cell division, while RNA acts as an intermediary to help synthesize proteins according to the genetic code. Molecular biologists study the interactions between these molecules to understand how life processes like DNA replication, transcription, and translation work at the cellular level.
Molecular biology is the study of biological phenomena at the molecular level, particularly proteins, nucleic acids, and enzymes. In the early 1950s, knowledge of protein structure enabled the description of DNA structure as a double helix. The discovery of restriction enzymes in the 1970s allowed for recombinant DNA technology, which molecular biologists use to isolate and modify genes. DNA is made up of nucleotides containing nitrogenous bases and a sugar-phosphate backbone. The four bases in DNA—adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine—bind together in base pairs across the double helix in a complementary manner.
Covers the flow of information from DNA to Protein synthesis, Transcription, Types of RNA, Genetic code, Protein Synthesis, Cell Function and cell reproduction
This document discusses genetic control and regulation at the molecular level. It covers DNA and RNA structure, transcription, translation, gene regulation, and cell division. The central dogma of molecular genetics is described involving DNA transcription to RNA and translation to protein. The types of RNA are defined including mRNA, tRNA, rRNA. Transcription and translation processes are explained in detail. Gene regulation mechanisms like promoters, transcription factors, and feedback systems are covered. Finally, the document discusses cell reproduction through DNA replication and cell mitosis.
RNA polymerase is the enzyme that controls transcription by unwinding DNA, building an RNA strand based on the DNA template, and proofreading as it adds nucleotides to improve accuracy. It makes an error about once per 10,000 nucleotides. Gene expression involves two main phases - transcription of DNA into mRNA and translation of mRNA into protein by ribosomes. Regulation of gene expression modulates these processes to control when genes are expressed. Post-translational modifications further process proteins after translation through additions like phosphorylation, glycosylation and lipidation that influence protein structure and function.
This document summarizes key aspects of gene transcription including:
1. Transcription is important for regulating cellular function and aberrant control can cause disease.
2. In eukaryotes, transcription and translation are separated in space and time, and primary RNA transcripts undergo extensive processing.
3. Prokaryotic transcription involves RNA polymerase recognizing promoters and transcribing DNA into RNA with sigma factors providing specificity. Eukaryotic transcription involves three RNA polymerases and more complex promoters.
1. DNA replication in prokaryotes involves unwinding of the DNA double helix by helicase, synthesis of an RNA primer by primase, and addition of nucleotides to the 3' ends of primers by DNA polymerase.
2. Replication occurs bidirectionally from an origin of replication, with continuous synthesis on the leading strand and discontinuous synthesis in fragments on the lagging strand.
3. In eukaryotes, DNA replication initiates at multiple origins of replication along each chromosome and involves additional mechanisms to address challenges like chromosome length and nucleosome assembly.
The document provides an overview of biology concepts related to cellular control, biotechnology, environments, and responding to the environment. It covers topics such as how DNA codes for proteins through gene expression and protein synthesis, cellular control mechanisms like the lac operon, genetic inheritance and mutations, developmental biology processes like apoptosis and meiosis, and more. The document is organized into 8 sections that describe these concepts through explanatory text, diagrams, and lists.
The document discusses DNA replication in eukaryotes and prokaryotes. It provides details on:
1) The enzymes involved in DNA replication such as DNA polymerase, helicase, ligase, and primase.
2) The stages of DNA replication - initiation, elongation, and termination.
3) Differences in DNA replication between prokaryotes and eukaryotes such as the presence of multiple origins of replication in eukaryotes.
4) Features of DNA replication like the semi-conservative mode, discontinuous replication in the lagging strand forming Okazaki fragments, and proofreading to ensure high-fidelity replication.
Collin College Nursing Vocabulary 1125Ilana Kovach
This document provides definitions for over 100 medical terminology terms related to anatomy, physiology, assessment, procedures, and other clinical concepts. Key terms defined include anatomical positions and directions, vital signs, assessment techniques like auscultation and palpation, infectious precautions, wound care concepts, surgical procedures, medications and routes of administration, common medical conditions and their signs/symptoms, and more. The document serves as a study guide for nursing students to learn essential language used in health care.
Collin College Nursing Abbreviation 1128Ilana Kovach
This document is an abbreviation study guide for nursing students containing over 100 common medical abbreviations along with their definitions. Some examples included are:
- ADL - Activities of daily living
- BP - Blood pressure
- CBC - Complete blood count
- CHF - Congestive heart failure
- CPR - Cardiopulmonary resuscitation
- DM - Diabetes mellitus
- EKG - Electrocardiogram
- HTN - Hypertension
- PRN - As needed
- Rx - Prescription
- TPR - Temperature, pulse, respiration
The guide is intended to help nursing students learn standard medical abbreviations used in patient charts and documentation.
This document provides information on various chemistry concepts including:
1) The scientific method process of observation, hypothesis, experiment, and conclusion.
2) Differences between physical and chemical changes and examples of each.
3) Density concepts including the density formula and how density relates to floating and sinking.
4) Classification of matter including elements, compounds, mixtures, and various types of mixtures.
Microbiology Practical 2!!!! i will miss this class! (Ilana Kovach)Ilana Kovach
The document describes several microbiology techniques used to identify bacterial species including biochemical tests to determine enzyme production from substrates and differential and selective media. Identification of both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria is discussed along with their reactions in tests such as catalase, coagulase, triple sugar iron, lysine iron agar, and rapid identification methods for pathogenic species.
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This document provides information about prokaryotic and eukaryotic cell structure and function. It compares key differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes such as DNA location, organelle presence, size and organization. It also describes common prokaryotic cell shapes and external structures like capsules, flagella, and fimbriae. Bacterial cell walls, membranes, and cytoplasmic components are outlined. Finally, it discusses endospore formation in Bacillus and Clostridium and rules for naming bacteria.
Ilana kovach (chemistry lab final review)Ilana Kovach
This document contains notes and observations from Ilana Kovach's chemistry lab final review. It summarizes 5 experiments on physical and chemical changes, including the reactions of copper sulfate and steel wool, zinc and hydrochloric acid, zinc chloride when heated, silver nitrate and hydrochloric acid, and calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid. For each experiment, observations of any physical or chemical changes and gases produced are described. The document also includes calculations and analysis from previous labs on topics like nomenclature, chemical bonding, and making hand cream.
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This document provides a summary of key topics and terms from several textbook chapters on research, evaluating internet resources, supporting materials in speeches, presentational aids, logical arguments, and types of evidence. It outlines important concepts like the components of evaluating internet sources, purposes of supporting materials, definition of etymology, logical fallacies, and types of arguments. Key terms are highlighted for each chapter to focus study on.
Sleep deprivation may be more serious than youIlana Kovach
Sleep Deprivation among college students is common. Persuasive speech about convincing college students to get more sufficient amount of sleep and take it more seriously. Public speaking 1315
This document provides guidance on organizing and delivering an effective speech. It discusses dividing the body of the speech into key ideas using various organizational patterns like topical, chronological, or problem-solution divisions. Transitions between ideas should complement, contrast, or show chronology. The introduction should grab attention, state the topic, and preview main ideas. The conclusion should summarize key points and provide closure. Speeches should be outlined in stages from a working outline to a formal outline to a speaking outline. Effective delivery requires practicing vocal elements like rate, volume, and pitch as well as physical elements like appearance, posture, eye contact and gestures. Analyzing the audience helps tailor the speech appropriately. Wording the speech clearly, vividly
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This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
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In an education system, it is understood that assessment is only for the students, but on the other hand, the Assessment of teachers is also an important aspect of the education system that ensures teachers are providing high-quality instruction to students. The assessment process can be used to provide feedback and support for professional development, to inform decisions about teacher retention or promotion, or to evaluate teacher effectiveness for accountability purposes.
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How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
2. Anatomy of the Cell
Nucleus: Contains DNA
Nucleolus: contains DNA
Ribosomes: Proteins to make amino
acids for the cell
Golgi Apparatus: Packages & modifies
Mitochondria: power house “ATP”
Smooth ER: synthesize lipids
Rough ER: contains rough ribosomes
Cytoplasm: The jell inside
Microtubules: Used fro replication
Centrioles: used for replication
3. Macromolecules
Carbohydrates
Monomer: Monosaccharides
Function: Energy, Glycoproteins, Glycolipids, at the membrane, protein recognition, cellulose (plant cells)
Energy Level: Primary source
Examples: Glucose, fructose, lactose, maltose, sucrose
Biological proceses: Cellular respiration
Lipids
Monomer: Monoglycerols, Free fatty acids, Cholesterol, Triglycerides. LDL & HDL
Function: membranes, steroid hormones, energy, lipoprotein, fat soluble vitamins
Energy level: Secondary
Examples: oils, fats, cholesterol, phospholipid, glycolipids
Biological process: Beta oxidation into acetyl coA
Nucleic Acids
Monomer: Nucleotides
Functions: Inheritable component of Gene, transmission, transcription & translation, all cell have the same gene in 1 organism
Energy: Not used for energy
Example: ATCG
Biological process: DNA replication for mitosis & meiosis & RNA synthesis for translation into primary polypeptide protein
Proteins
Monomer: Amino Acids
Function: Enzymes, transporters, channels, antibodies, microtubules, muscles tissue, energy source
Energy Level: Tertiary
Examples: histadine, Methionine, valine, proline, peptides & polypeptides
Vitamins & Minerals
Vitamins A, D, E, K [Fat Soluble]
A,B,C,D,E, K+, Fe+, Ca+, Na+
4. DNA, Chromosomes & Genes
DNA is all the genetic makeup
that makes YOU as YOU
Chromosomes [23 pairs] we
have are large structures of
DNA that Contain genes “small
snipits”. The chromosomes are
wrapped around histones &
can be unwrapped through a
process called acetylation
7. Initiation, Elongation & Termination
1.Initiation: After RNA polymerase binds to the promoter, the
DNA strands unwind and the polymerase initiates RNA synthesis
at the start point on the template strand
1.Elongation: The Polymerase moves downstream unwinding the
DNA and elongating the RNA transcription 5’ 3’ in the wake
of transcription the DNA strands re-form a double Helix
1.Termination: Eventually the Rna transcript is released and the
polymerase detaches from DNA
Begins with Tata box
[several transcription factors]
transcription initiation complex
8. RNA processing [Modified & Spliced]
1.Introns are removed
2.Introns are included in
mRNA
3.RNA splicing & includes a
Poly A tail & Cap
Introns are
removedExon 1 Exon 2
Intron
Pre-mRNA RNA
9. Protein Synthesis
mRNA is transcribed either on free ribosomes
in the Cytoplasm or on the endoplasmic
reticulum. The tRNA reads the codon which
are on the mRNA strand consisting of Adenine,
Guanine, Cytosine & Uracil. Three of these
chemicals together are a codon representing
an amino acid. The transfer RNA reads the
codon on the Mrna and creats a chain of
amino acids that are necessary ingredients for
cell to function.
11. S Phase: Replication of Semi Conservative DNA
Topoisomerase: CUT it, release it & join it again
Helicase: unwind parental double helix at the forks
Single stranded binding protein: helps keep fork open
Primase: starts a complementary RNA chain, Primer starts at 3’ end of DNA
DNA pol III: adding nucleotides
DNA pol I: change RNA to DNA
DNA ligase: Joining sugar phosphate backbones of all okazaki fragments into continuous DNA
Leading Strand
1. After RNA primer is made DNA pol III starts to synthesize the leading strand
2. The leading strand is elongated continuously in the 5’ 3’ direction as the forks progress
Lagging strand
1. Primase joins RNA nucleotides into RNA Primer
2. DNA pol III adds DNA nucleotides to the primer forming okazaki fragments
3. After reaching the next RNA primer to the right DNA pol III detaches
4. Fragment 2 is primed then DNA pol III add DNA nucleotides detaching when it reaches fragment 1
primer
5. DNA pol II replaces the RNA with DNA adding to the 3’ end of fragment 2
6. DNA ligase forms a bond between the newest DNA and the DNA fragment I
7. The lagging strand in this region is now complete
12. Mitosis
46
Meiosis
46
46
46
46 46
23 23 23 23
Prophase: Chromosomes condense &
nuclear
membrane disappear
Metaphase: the paired chromosomes
line up in the middle
Anataphase: The chromosomes separate
Telephase : The chromosomes arrive at
each opposite end.
Cytokinesis: the cytoplasm completely
separates becoming
meiosis results in Genetic Varition …The
first time in prophase 1 the sister
chromatids perform crossing over for
genetic variation. The first time through
in anaphase the homologous
chromosomes separate. Durning the
seond round the individual sister
chromatids separate resulting in 4
haploid cells
13. Cell cycle
DNA Repair
Cell cycle restart
Apoptosis
Death &
elimination of
damaged cells
Checkpoint in Cell cycle
P53 was the first cell cycle checkpoint gene to be discovered
in humans “the guardian of the genome” “guardian angel
gene” “master watchmen” many anti- cancer mechanisms
[tumor suppressor gene]
mdm2 p53 p53
Inactive Active
Cellular & Genetic
stability
DNA damage cell
cycle [ex. Hypoxia]
14. Tumor
metasosis
Cancer
Human body composed of 200 different
cell types that are required to
accomplish a specific function
Cancer is class of disease in which a
group of cells display uncontrolled
growth and exhibit reduced
performance of specialized function
while reproducing without limit
If enough cell become cancerous the
organism dies
Normal
Cells
Tumor
Growth
Tumor
Cells
transformation
proliferation
invasion
18. Genotype & Phenotype
Genotype is the
organisms individual
DNA [Ex. Homogenous
for Green eyes]
Phenotype is what you
can see with the naked
eye [EX. Green Eyes]
22. Cellular
Respiration
Pathway ATP
produced
ATP
Used
NADH
produced
FADH2
Glycolysis 4 2 2 0
Synthesis of
Acetyl-CoA &
Krebs Cycle
2 0 8 2
Electron
Transport
Chain
34 0 0 0
Total 40 2
Net Total 38
Alternative
Pathways
ATP
produc
ed
Electron
Carriers
Products
Pentose
Phosphate
1 ATP 2 NADPH 5 Carbon Precursor
metabolites
Entner-
Doudoroff
1 ATP 2 NADPH Other precursor
metabolites
Alternate pathway’s
24. 5. DHAP rearrange to form
G3P
Energy Investment Stage
C C C C C C
Glucose
C C C C C C
Glucose 6- Phosphate
P
CP PC C C C C
Fructose 1, 6- Bisphosphate
ADP
ADP
Lysis Stage
Fructose 1, 6- Bisphosphate
P PC C C C C C
CCC
Dihydroxyacetone Phosphate
(DHAP)
P
1. Glucose (Substrate- Level
Phosphorylation)
2. Glucose Molecules Rearranged
for form fructose 6 phosphate
3. Fructose 6 phosphate
Phosphorylated to form Fructose 1,
6-Biphosphate
4 . Fructose 1, 6-Biphosphate
splits to form (DHAP & G3P)
Glyceraldehyde 3 Phosphate (G3P)
C C CP C C CP
25. Energy Conserving Stage
Glyceraldehyde 3 Phosphate (G3P)
C CCP P C CC
P2
NAD
+
2
NADH2
C CCCCCP P P P
STEP 6: 2 Inorganic
phosphates are added to
(G3P) & 2 NAD+ are
reduced to NADH
Two 1, Phosphoglyceric Acid
ADP
2
2
Two 3 Phosphoglyceric Acid
CCC P C C C P
STEP 7: 2 ATP are
phosphorylated by substrate
level to form 2 ATP
H20
2
C C C C C C
PP
Two Phosphoenolpyruvic Acid (PEP)
STEP 8 & 9: Remaining
Phosphates moved to middle
carbon & water removed from
each substrate
ADP
2
2
C C C C C C
STEP 10: 2 ATP are
phosphorylated by substrate
level to form 2 ATP
Two Pyruvic Acid
27. Krebs
Cycle
Acetyl-CoA
CoA
C
C
C
C
C
CC
C
C
OOH
OOH
OOH
Citric Acid
1 2
CoA
C
C
C
C OOH
OOH
OOH
C
IsoCitric Acid
NADH
NAD
+
C02+3
C
C
C
C
C
OOH
OOH
α-ketoglutaric Acid
NADH C02+
C
C
C
C
CoA
Succinyl-CoA
OOH
ADP
GDP
Acetyl-CoA
CoA
CoA
FAD
+
4
5
C
C
C
C OOH
OOH
Succinic Acid
6
C
C
C
CHOO
OOH
Fumaric
Acid
FADH2
7
H20
8
C
C
C
C
Malic
Acid
OOH
OOH
C
C
C
C
OOH
OOH
Oxaloacetic Acid
NADH
Start
Here
30. Local & Distance Signaling
Cells in multicellular organisms communicate by chemical
messengers. Animal & plant cells have cell junctions that directly
connect the cytoplasm of adjacent cells.
In local signaling animal cells may communicate by direct contact
or cel to cell recognition in many other cases animal cells
communicate using local regulators, messenger molecules that
travel only short distances. In long distances signaling plants &
animals use chemical messengers called hormones
Methods of cell communication
1. Gap Junctions
2. Cell-cell recognition use glycoproteins
3. Paracrine signaling secrete signals to nearby cells by
discharging molecuels of local regulator
4. Sypnaptic signaling [ex. Nerve cell]
5. Endocrine signaling secrete horomones into the blood
stream
31. Stages of cell signaling
Earl W. Sutherland
discovered how the hormone
acts on cells
Sutherland suggested that
cells receiving signals went
through 3 processes:
1.Reception
2.Transduction
3.Response
32. Plasma Membrane Receptors: “water soluble”
G protein coupled receptor, Receptor Tyrosine kinase, ligand Gated ion channel
G protein: Is a plasma membrane receptor that
works with the help of the G protein
The G protein act as an on/off switch: If GDP is
bound to the G protein the G protein is inactive
Tyrosine Kinase: Is a plasma membrane
receptor that attach phosphates to tyrosine's. A
receptor tyrosine kinase can trigger multiple signal
transduction at once.
Ligand gate ion channel: Is a Receptor
that acts as a gate when the receptor changes shape.
When signal molecule binds as a ligand to the
receptor the gate allows specific ions such as Na+
or Ca2+ through a channel in the receptor.
Second messengers:
cyclic cAMP &
calcium ion
channels… to further
the signal to a
response
33. Intracellular Receptors: “Lipid Soluble”
Hormone, Steroid or thyroid
The chemical signal is
able to enter the cell &
has ability to turn on/off
genes
34. How to amplify a chemical
signal response
Transduction pathways are a cascade of
molecular interactions that relay signals
from receptors to target molecule's in the
cell. Examples is protein kinases &
protein phosphatases. This pathway is
transmitted by a cascade of protein
phosphorylation. Protein kinase transfers
phosphates from ATP to protein a process
called phosphorylation. Protein
phosphatases removes the phosphate
from proteins a process called
dephosphorylation. This system acts as a
molecular switch. Because a one
molecules can activate many molecules
this response can be amplified a million
fold within an organism. Scaffolding is
another efficient method.
38. Energy
Kinetic energy: energy of motion
Potential energy: stored energy (not moving object still has energy)
Chemical energy: the potential energy available for release in a chemical
Organisms are open systems: the absorb & release energy
39. Laws of
thermodynamics
1st Law: Energy can be
transferred &
transformed but it
cannot be created or
destroyed
2nd Law: Energy transfer
or transformation
increases the entropy
(disorder or randomness)
of the universe
40. Free Energy
Gibbs formula
▲G= ▲H- T▲s▲G: Change in free (available energy)
▲H: enthalpy (change in total energy)
T: Temperature in Kelvin
▲s: Change in entropy (disorder)
Chemical reactions that..
Loose free energy are spontaneous or exergonic (catabolism) ▲G < 0 spontaneous
Absorb free energy are endergonic (anabolism) ▲G>nonspontaneous
Equilibrium: state of maximum stability ▲G=Equilibrium
42. ATP & Cellular Work
ATP “adenosine Triphosphate”
Immediate source for energy
Common to ALL living things
Responsible for mediating most
energy coupling reactions (use of
exergonic reactions to drive
endergonic reactions)
Composed of ribose (sugar),
adenine (nitrogenous base) and 3
phosphate groups. One ATP
molecule has a ▲G= -7.3Kcal/mol
3 types of Cell Work
Mechanical [ex. Beating of cilia,
muscle contraction, movement of
chromosome during division]
Transport [ex. Active transport]
Chemical [Ex. Respiration Reactions]
43. Hydrolysis
The bond between the 2nd & 3rd
phosphate group breaks. The phosphate
group is transferred to another molecule
(phosphorylation)
44. Enzymes
Cells use enzymes (catalytic proteins) to speed up reactions [LOWER
activation Energy]. Enzymes show specificity the active site of an
enzyme has a specific shape that is specific to the shape of the substrate
that bind to it
Induced fit hypothesis: Substrate induces a change in the shape f the
active site to create a snug fit
45. Enzymes can be
effected by..
pH & Temperature
Optimal Human Temperature: 37ºC
Optimal Thermophilic Bacteria: 77ºC
Optimal pH of pepsin [stomach enzyme]: 2
Optimal Trypsin [intestinal enzyme]: 8
46. Cofactors, Enzyme
inhibitors & Regulation of
Enzyme activity
Cofactors
Many enzymes require non-protein helpers called cofactors to be active
May be permanent fixture or bind reversibly along w/substrate
May be inorganic metals: zinc, iron, copper
May be organic (coenzymes): vitamins
Enzyme Inhibitors:
Competitive: Mimic the substrate; bind to & block the active site
Noncompetitive: bind away from the active site, cause the enzyme to change shape which changes the shape of the active site.
Regulation of enzyme activity:
Allosteric regulation: binding of an activator or inhibitor molecule to a regulator site on a enzyme which stabilizes the functional or inactive form of the enzyme [ADP acts as activator & ATP
acts as an inhibitor]
Cooperativity: one substrate binds to an enzyme & primes the enzyme to accept additional substrates
Feeback inhibition: product of a metabolic pathway binds to & inhibits an enzyme that acts early in the pathway
-the end product of a metabolic pathway shuts down the pathway
-prevents a cell from wasting chemical resource by synthesizing more product than is needed