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- 1. I Love Studying Anatomy & Physiolgy The image above is depicting a moment expressing how I feel about anatomy & physiology. It’s very difficult to describe in words but I deem the feeling as a love & Hate relationship with this intense subject that has a lot to offer in knowledge. Frustration is equivalent to an athlete with sore muscles… Learning is pushing the limits and frustration is the essential key ingredient to accumulating Knowledge. Anatomy was not easy for me however questions was vital to aide in the growth of understanding the functions of the Human body. Our bodies our fascinating & complex but it’s important to have a foundation of understanding the Body to help with future cures for when the body isn’t completely working properly. I went through many stages of frustration, anxiety, and in the end felt incredibly satisfying. Future anatomy students science is continuously growing in physiology comprehension and Anatomy at Collin college gave me the proper in depth education to allow me to proceed to the Next level. Remember Study it’s not a deathly word to avoid. Studying can be in many forms simply asking questions allowing your mind to expand which allows you to actively think or making friends to discuss topics over a cup of coffee, writing notes, Drawing. I used all these methods in the end of this class I made a PowerPoint for the last practical. I hope this review can not only help myself but many other students. Studying is a term that should be something to look forward to doing. Studying does NOT mean staring at a book for hours reading; some may prefer this method but it isn’t the only way! Actively thinking, speaking, drawing helped me immensely. The key word is doing is what helped me retain what I learned. Studying shouldn't equal isolation but activate discussions among students. Another thought to keep in mind is quality versus quantity there is no competition to who studies more and the saying “why did I fail “I studied for hours?” I strongly advise students to instead train your thoughts to say “look at how much I learned!”. The Goal is learning the truth is not all the information will appear on the Exam so in reality the main goal is continuously learning more exponentially. Having a negative attitude toward studying is a dangerous quality to have in thus it prevents a person to want to learn, we become memorization machines instead of curious human beings which is the driving force to take the course. Being curious is a from of studying so in other words you can technically study 24 hours a day just for being curious and simply wondering to the point not knowing bothered a student that they actually remembered to ask their question.
- 2. Endocrine System Long term Regulation of Homesostatic mechanisms 1. Regulate Fluid & Electrolyte Balance 2. Cell & Tissue Metabolism 3. Reproductive Functions 4. Nervous system in responding to stressful stimuli General Adaptation Syndrome
- 4. Endocrine Histology Adenopophoysis Neuropophoysis Thymus Neuropophoysis Hassall’s Corpuscle Thyroid Gland Parathyroid Adrenal Glands Zona Fasisculata “Lollipop” Zona Reticularis Medulla Zona Glomerulos
- 7. Homeostasis & Intracellular Communication Target Cells Are specific cells that possess receptors needed to bind and “read” hormonal messages Hormones Stimulate synthesis of enzymes or structural proteins Increase or decrease rate of synthesis Turn existing enzyme or membrane channel “on” or “off”
- 8. Hormones 1. Amino Acid Derivative 2. Peptide Hormone 3. Lipid Derivative
- 9. PlasmaReceptors 1st Messenger (Peptide, Hormone, Catecholamine) 2nd Messenger (cAMP & Calcium Ions) *G proteins (Enzyme link 1st & 2nd Messengers) Amplification Up Regulation (Absence of a hormone) More sensitive Down Regulation (presence of hormone) less sensitive Intracellular Receptors Lipid Soluble Alter DNA transcription!!! (Directly effects metabolic activity) Examples:Steroid & Thyroid Hormones
- 10. Triggered By… 1. Humoral Stimuli 2. Hormonal Stimuli 3. Neural Stimuli Control of Endocrine Activity Types of Responses: Endocrine Reflex Complex Endocrine Reflex NeuroEndocrine Reflex Hypothalamus “master Gland” Secretes Regulatory Hormones Amount of Hormone Secreted Pattern of Hormonal Release “sudden Burst” Frequency Changes Response of Target Cell
- 11. Thyroid Gland Parathyroid Gland Pitutiary Gland Adrenal Gland Pancrease Gland Andenohypophysis FSH, LH, TSH, ACTH Prolactin, GH Neuropophysis ADH & Oxytocin T3 more Active than T4 T3= 3 Iodides T4 = 4 iodides Produce Calcitonin (Lower Ca+) Increased excretion of the Kidneys Inhibiting osteoclast (Break down) “Equilibrium Exist between Bound & Unbound” Determine Functions of the thyroids basic metabolic rate for all cells Bind to receptors in: Cytoplasm, surface of Mitochondria, & Nucleus Effects of thyroid on Peripheral Tissue 1. Elevates O2 consumption & Energy Consumption “Children may cause a rise in Body Temp.” 2. Increases Heart Rate & Force of Contraction ; Generally results in a rise of BP 3. Increases sensitivity to sympathetic stimulation 4. Maintains normal sensitivity of respiratory centers to changes in o2 & Co2 concentrations 5. Stimulates activity in other endocrine tissue 6. Accelerates turnover of minerals in bone. Parathyroid Chief Cells Produce PTH antagonist of Calcitonin response to LOW Ca+ levels in Increased Reabsorption by the kidneys Inhibiting Osteoblast (Make bone) Adrenal Cortex Zona Glmoerulosa (mineralcorticoids) Aldosterone Goes to kidney’s & retains Na+ Zona Fasiculata (Glucocorticoids) Sugar/Glucose “Lollipop” Cortisol Zona Reticularis (Gonatocorticoids) Ovaries & Testes Adrenal Medulla Inside HIGHLY VASCULAR (E/NE) Moblize glycogen reservese Accelerates break down of ATP Alphabet Pancreatic Islets 1. Alpha cells Produce GLUCAGON 1. Beta cells Produce INSULIN Blood Glucose Levels Rise: beta cells secrete insulin Decline: Alpha cells secrete Glucagon 9 Peptide Hormones Hypophyseal Portal System Fenestrated Capillaries Ensures Regulatory Factors reach the intended target cells in the pituitary before entering circulation
- 12. Renin-Angiotensin Aldosterone System Kidney’s: Calcitrol & Erythropoietin Calcitrol Calcium & phosphate ion absorption at the digestive tract Erythropoietin stimulates RBC production in Bone marrow Natriuretic Peptides Specialized muscle cells when blood pressure becomes to high (oppose angiotensin II) ANP/BNP Thymosins Testosterone & Estrogen/Progesterone 1. Capillaries in Lungs convert BY Enzyme (ACE) Angiotensin I Angiotensin II 2. Angiotensin II stimulates adrenal production of Aldosterone 3. Stimulates the Pituitary Release of ADH 4.Promotes Thirst 5. Elevates Blood Pressure Thymosins Developing & maintaining & developing normal immune defense T lymphocytes!! Continuously decreases In size after puberty Androgens (Male) interstitial Cells Estrogen assist in follicle developing & Progesterone (Corpus Leuteum)
- 13. Hormones Interact Anatagoinsistic Effect opposing effect “PTH & calcitonin” or “Insulin & Glucagon” Synergistic Effect Additive effect Permissive Effect 1st one needed for 2nd one to produce effect Integrative Effect complementary General Adaptation Syndrome Alarm Phase Directed by the sympathetic Fight or Flight response of the ANS Resistance Phase Dominated by glucocorticoids Exhaustion Phase eventual breakdown of homeostatic regulation & failure of one or more organ
- 14. Diabetes MellitusHyperglycemia: Abnormally High Blood Glucose Levels Glucose appears in the urine & Urine Volume becomes Excessive Polyuria 1.Types 1 (Insulin Dependent) 2.Type 2 (non insulin Dependent) Manageable with diet 3.Type 3 (Gestational) diabetes The placenta deactivated insulin BIG OBESE BABIES Complication of poorly managed Diabetes Kidney degeneration (Dialysis) Retinal Damage (Diabetic Retinopathy) Early Heart Attacks Peripheral Nerve Problems (Neuropathy) Peripheral Nerve Damage (Infection/Amputation)
- 15. Reproductive System Ovaries & Testes Meiosis is The reason we are NOT identical
- 16. Male System Female SystemSpermatogensis & Spermiognesis Seminiferous Tubules Oogensis Mitosis of Spermatogonium Primary Spermatogonium Meiosis I Secondary Spermatocyte Meiosis II Spermatids Spermiogeneis (Physical Maturation) Mitosis of Oogonia Divisions completed before Birth Meiosis I Primary Oogonium Meiosis II Suspended state of metaphase Proceed to complete meiosis if Fertilization Occurs Equal Division of Cytoplasm EQUAL division of DNA but NOT EQUAL division of cytoplasm, for nutrient purposes Polar body will be discarded Secondary oocyte, more cytoplasm, becomes a mature ovum, is ovulated MEIOSIS II WILL ONLY BE COMPLETED IF FERTILIZATION TAKES PLACE, IF not stops at metaphase of meiosis II
- 18. Male Histology Spermatic Cord Prostate Gland Penis Seminiferous Tubules in the TestesEpididymis
- 19. Female Histology Primordial Follicles Primary Follicle Secondary Follicle Tertiary Follicle Corpus Luteum Ovarian Cycle 1. Follicular Phase: Granulosa Cells increase as FSH levels increase 2. Luteal Phase: Corpus Leuteum Preparing for BABY after ovulation Produces Progesterone
- 21. Female Models
- 22. Female
- 24. Male Models
- 29. Superior & Inferior Vena Cava Right Atrium Tricuspid Valve Right Ventricle Pulmonary Trunk Arteries Pulmonary Veins Left Atrium Left Ventricle Aortic Semilunar Valve Oxygenated Blood Distributed LungsExternal Respiration Deoxygenated Blood collected
- 31. Neutrophils MOST abundant!!!! 70% Lymphocyte 2nd Most Abundant! 20-30% 2 Types Tcells B cells
- 32. Respiratory System Physiology Bronchiole sounds Vesicular breathing Spirometer Tidal volume Inspiratory reserve volume Expiration reserve volume Vital capacity Residual volume Respiration Pulmonary ventilation External ventilation Transport of respiratory gases Internal respiration Entrance of Air External nares Nasal cavity Nasal septum Nasal Concha's Sinuses Hard plate Soft plate Cleft plate Lungs Trachea Primary bronchi Hilum Secondary bronchi Tertiary bronchi Bronchioles Terminal bronchiole Respiratory bronchiole Alveolar ducts Alveoli Respiratory membrane Respiratory zone Conducting zone Pleura Parietal pleura Visceral pleura Diaphragm Larynx Thyroid cartilage Cricoid cartilage C shaped tracheal cartilage Epiglottis Hyoid bone Vestibular fold Vocal folds Arytenoid cartilage Pharynx Nasopharynx Oropharynx Laryngopharynx Otitis media's
- 34. Entrance of Air External nares Hard Palate Nasal cavity Laryngophargynx Pharyngeal Tonsil Nasal Septum Perpendicular plate of the Ethmoid Vomer 8 Uvula 10 9 Frontal Sinus 19 7 6 5 16 1 2 1 3 1 4 3 4 1 5 1 2 17 18
- 35. Larynx C- Shaped Tracheal Cartilage Hyaline Cartilage Elastic Cartilage Hyoid Bone Cricoid Cartilage Hyoid Bone Elastic Cartilage Cricoid Cartilage Arytenoid Cartilage Arytenoid Cartilage C- Shaped Tracheal Cartilage Hyaline Cartilage 6 1 2 1 3 4 4 5 7 2 3 5 7
- 36. Physiology of speaking… or my favorite singing Vocal fold “Inferior” Vestibular fold “Top” Cricoid Cartilage Cricoid Cartilage Thyroid Cartilage Epilottis Vocal Fold Open & Close During Speaking, Singing 1 3 2 5 7 4 6
- 37. Don’t Forget about the Esophagus! that’s why the Tracheal cartilages are C shaped Esophagus 1 2
- 38. Lungs Right Lung Left Lung BronchiPulmonary Arteries Pulmonary Veins Pulmonary Veins Pulmonary Arteries Bronchi Cardiac Notch “Because the heart is tilted to the left” 1 6 2 3 2 3 1
- 39. Pleura = Lungs Visceral Pleura Parietal Pleura Pleura Fluid Thoracic Wall most Superificial 3 2 1 4
- 40. Pulmonary Vein Pulmonary Artery Esophagus Cricoid Cartilage Thyroid Cartilage Inferior Vena Cava Abdominal Aorta Diagram 1 2 4 5 6 7 8 10 3 9 11 12
- 41. Respiratory zoneConducting zone Nasal Cavity Pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi Larger Bronchioles Smallest Thinnest Bronchioles Associated Alveoli “Air filled pockets”
- 42. Trachea Brochi Right Primary Bronchi Shorter & More linear! “Children who swallow toys most likely make their destination in Right primary Bronchi” 1 2 4 3 5
- 43. Bronchioles & Alveoli Aveoli Duct TerminalBronchioles Pulmonary ArteriesPulmonary Veins Smooth Muscle On respiratory bronchiole 7 3 1 2 4 5
- 44. Respiratory membrane at the Alveoli Alveolar Macrophage Type I pneumocyte Elastic Fibers Type II pneumocyte “Surfactant” Capillary Fuse Basement Membrane Alveolar Epithelium Surfactant Capillary Epithelium Capillary Lumen 1 2 3 5 4 6 7 8 9 10 11
- 45. Physiology Lung Volume & Capacities Tidal volume The amount of air inhaled and exhaled during normal breathing. Average 500ml Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) The amount of air that can be forcibly inhaled above a normal tidal inspiration. Average 3300ml Expiration reserve volume (ERV) The amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled above a normal tidal Exhalation. Average 100ml Residual volume (RV) The amount of air that cannot be forcibly exhaled from the lungs, meaning that the lungs are never completely empty of air. This is due to surfactant being produced by septal cell in the aveoli to completely collapse. Average 1200ml IRV+ERV+TV The maximum amount of air that can be exhaled from the lungs after a maximum inhalation. Averages: Males: 4800ml, Females: 3100ml Total lung Capacity (TLC)= +RV The maximum amount of air the lungs are capable of holding. Average 6000ml Minimal Volume RR*TV The amount of air that will remain in the lungs even if they were to collapse. Average 30-120ml Minute Volume (MV) = RR* TV The amount of air exchanged between the lungs and the environment in ONE minute. Spirometer Device used to measure respiratory Volumes Minimal Volume RR*TV Tidal volume Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV) Expiration reserve volume (ERV) IRV+ERV+TV Total lung Capacity (TLC) +RV Residual volume (RV)
- 46. Inhalation Exhalation Expiration Exhalation. Diaphragm relaxes, rib cage returns to resting positions decreasing size of thoracic cavity. Thoracic pressure decreases, air exits lungs. This is a passive process. . Pulmonary ventilation Movement of air in and out of the lungs *At Rest the pressure inside & Outside of the thoracic cavity is equal, so no air is moving. Respiratory Rate (RR)- Number of breath per minute, average is 12bpm Respiratory Physiology Inspiration Inhalation. Diaphragm contracts, rib cage elevates to increase size of thoracic cavity, thoracic pressure decreases, air flows into lungs. This is an active process External Respiration Gas exchange between the alveoli and the capillaries Co2 Exits O2 Enters Aveolus & Pulmonary Capillaries Exhange Blood & Body Tissue Exhange Internal respiration Gas exchange between the blood and the body’s tissues
- 47. Respiratory Histology Trachea: Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Hyaline Cartilage Healthy Lungs vs. Emphysma Aveoli Bronchi Bronchioles 2 1 3 7 6 8 5 4
- 48. Kidneys Fibrous capsule Cortex Medulla Medullary pyramid Papilla Renal column Pelvis Major calyx Minor calyx Glomerulus Blood Flow Renal artery Segmental artery Interlobar artery Arcuate artery Afferent arterioles Glomerulus Cortical Radiate vein Arcuate vein Interlobar vein Renal vein Microscopic Anatomy Glomerulus Renal tubule Bowman's capsule Renal Corpuscle Proximal convulated tube Loop of Henley Distal convulated tube Cortical nephron Juxtamedullary nephron Collecting duct Afferent arterioles Efferent arterioles Peritubular capillary bed Vasa recta Filtration Tubular reabsorption Tubular secretion Micturition Incontinence Posts Entrance & Exit Renal arteries Renal veins Hilum Ureter Urinary Bladder Trigonone Urethra (Male/Female) Urinary System
- 49. Kidney Ureter Urinary Bladder Trigonone (Transitional Epithelium) Urethra Male or Female? (Micturition) Right Kidney Left Kidney Urinary Bladder Male or Female? 3 5 4 3 2 1
- 50. Renal Fascia Perinephric Fat Fibrous capsule Hilum Renal sinus Cortex Medulla Medullary Pyramid Renal Column Renal Lobe Renal Papilla Minor Calyx Major Calyx Renal Pelvis Gross Anatomy of the Kidney Medullary pyramid Renalcolumn Cortex Medulla Fibrous capsule Renal Lobe “Piece of Pizza” Cortex & Medulla Renal Column & Medullary Pyramid 2 4 6 11 5 9 8 7 3 1 10 Renal Pelvis
- 51. Renal Artery Segmental Artery Interlobar Artery Arcuate Arteries Cortical Radiate Arteries Afferent Arterioles Glomerulus Efferent Arterioles Peritubular Capillaries (Vasa Recta) Venules Cortical Radiate veins Arcuate Veins Interlobar Veins Renal Vein Blood Supply to Kidney Segmental Arteries Interlobar Arteries & Veins Cortical Radiate Arteries & Veins Arcuate Veins Renal Vein Hilum Arteries, Veins & Nerves Innervate the Kidney Afferent Arterioles Entrance to Glomerulus Afferent Arterioles Entrance to Glomerulus 9 3 2 4 2 5 6 71 8 10
- 52. Juxtamedullary & Cortical Nephrons Renal Corpuscle FILTRATION Bowman's Capsule Capsular Epithelium Capsular Space Glomerulus Glomerulus Epithelium Podocytes Filtration Slits Renal Tubule ABSORPTION & SECRETION PCT Loop of Henle Descending Limb Ascending LimbDCT Juxtaglomerular Apparatus Macula Densa Juxtaglomerular Cells Collecting Sysem Collecting Duct Papillary Duct Nephron Organization Glomerulus Bowman’s Capsule Descending Thi (N) (N)egative Ascending Thic (k) Lets go fly a (k)ite PCT Microvilli PCT Microvilli DCT Maculae Densa 2 3 5 9 1 10 4 4 4 6 8 711
- 53. Renal Corpuscle Glomerulus “Glomerular Hydrostatic Pressure” =(GHP- CsHP) - BCOP 1 2 3 4 5 6
- 54. PCT DCT Juxtamedullary Nephron More concentrated Urine “Countercurrent multiplication” Cortical Nephron 11 3 2 1 56 7 8 6 9 5 10 4 12 13 15 13 16
- 55. Renal Tubule PCT DCT Thick Descending Thick Ascending Thin Ascending Thin Descending Juxtamedullary Nephron More concentrated Urine “Countercurrent multiplication” Cortical Nephron Renal Lobule 1 2 5 3 4 6 7 8 10 9 11 12 6 7 71 4 3 2 5 8 9 10 11 1 5 13 12 14 15 8 10 2 3 6 4 9
- 56. Analysis of Urine pH Average 6 Normal : 4.5 -8 High Protein Acidic High Vegetable Diet Akaline Specific Gravity Water 1.000 Normal Urine 1.003- 1.030 Normal Constiutients Water Urea Creatinine Electrolyte Physical Color Uchrome Dark Red or Brown (Blood) Turbidity Bacteria Mucus Cells cast Crystals Smell Starvation Breakdown Fats (KETONES) Diabetes = Sweet urine Chemical Ketones (Ketosis) Glucosuria Albumin (Albuminuria ) (Hematuria) (Pyuria) (Hemoglobinuria) Bilirubin ( Bilirubinuria) Urolininogen (Urobilogenuria) urea (deamination, Creatinine) Nitries Sodium Choloride (Table Salt)) Ammonia Healthy Urine?We can test if you micturition in a cup!
- 57. Urinary Histology Urinary Bladder: Transitional Epithelium Kidney: Cortex & Medulla Renal Corpuscle: Glomerulus Bowman capsule DCT & PCT Bowman’s Capsule Cortex Medulla Cortex Renal Corpuscle 1 2 3 4 4 5 10 76 8 9 7
- 58. Entrance of Food Mechanical Digestion Chemical Digestion Absorption Alimentary Canal Oral Cavity Uvula Labia Cheeks Hard palate Soft Palate Tongue Oral Cavity Proper Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Cardia Body Fundus Pylorus Pyloric sphincter Rugae Small Intestine Duodenum Sphyncter of Odi Jejunum Ileum Peyers Patches Ileocecal valve Modifications Villi Microvilli Plicae Circularis Large Intestine Cecum Appendix Ascending Colon Hepatic Flexure Transverse Colon Splenic Flexure Descending Colon Sigmoid Colon Rectum Haustra Tania coli Anus Anal Sphyncter Deciduous teeth & Permanent Teeth Incisor Canin Premolar Molar Dentin Cemetin Enamel Root Crown Periodontal ligament Apical formaent Salivary Glands Parotid Submandibular Sublingual Gallbladder Cystic duct Left & Right Common Hepatic Duct Bile Duct Digestive System Liver Right Lobe Left Lobe Caudate Lobe Quadrate Lobe Lobule Central canal Sinusoid Hepatocytes Kpuffer cells Hepatic arteriole Portal venule Bile canaliculi Portal triad Layers of the Digestive Tract Mucosa Submucosa Muscularis Externa Serosa Adventitia Pancreas Acinar cells
- 59. Functions of the Digestive System Ingestion a. Material Enter digestive Tract Via Mouth b. Conscious & Unconscious Digestion a. Crushing & Shearing b. Makes materials easier to propel through digestive Tract Secretion a. Is the release of water, acids, enzymes, Buffers & Salts b. By epithelium of the digestive Tract c. By Glandular Organs Absorption a. Movement of Organic substrates, Electrolytes, Vitamins, & Water b. Across digestive epithelium c. Into interstitial fluid of digestive tract Excretion a. Removal of waste products from body fluids b. Process called defecation removes feces
- 60. Digestive System Digestive System Major Organs Oral Cavity, Teeth & Tongue Pharynx Esophagus Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine Accessory Organs Tongue Salivary Glands Pancrease Liver Gallbladder Catabolism Decomposes substances to provide Energy cells need the Function Anabolism Uses Raw materials to synthesize essential compounds Required Two essential Ingrediencts 1. Oxgen 2. Organic molecules broken down by intracellular Enzymes “Carbohydrates, Fats & Proteins” The Foood We Eat
- 61. Peritoneum Superficial Mesothelium Covers a Layer of Areolar Tissue Serosa or Visceral Peritoneum Covers Organs within Peritoneal Cavity Peritoneal Fluid Produced by serous membrane lining Provides Essential Lubrication Separates parietal & visceral Surfaces Allows sliding without friction or irritation About 7 Liters produced & Absorbed Daily But very little in peritoneal cavity at ONE time Parietal Peritoneum Lines Inner surface of Body wall Abdominopelvic Cavity contains the peritoneal cavity lined by serous membrane Serous Membrane Contains: Ascities: Fluid Buildup causes abdominal swelling Peritonitis- Inflammation of the Peritoneum Membrane
- 62. Mesenteriesa. Are Double sheets of peritoneal membrane b. Suspended portions of the Digestive Tract within peritoneal cavity by sheets of serous membrane Connect parietal peritoneum visceral peritoneum Embryonic Development: Dorsal Mesenteries Greater Omentum Conforms to shapes of surrounding organs Pads and protects surfaces of abdomen Provides insulation to reduce heat loss Stores lipid energy reserves Adipose Tissue Embryonic Development: Ventral Mesenteries Disappears Except for: Falciform Ligament & Lesser Omentum Beer Belly Mesentary Proper Functions Is a thick mesenteries sheet Provides stability Permits some independent movement ALLintestines Covered by mesenteries
- 63. Digestive Tract Movement of Materials Muscular Layer of Digestive Tract: Visceral Smooth Muscles Tissue Rhythmic Cycles: Pacesetter cells Stimulate GI Tract (Located muscularis mucosae & muscularis Externa) Spontaneous Depolarization: wave of contraction throughout entire muscular sheet Initial State circular & Longitudinal Muscle are Relaxed 1. Contraction of Circular Superficial muscle Behind Bolus 2. Contraction of Longitudinal Deep muscle Behind Bolus 3. Contraction in Circular muscle layer Forces Bolus Forward Peristalsis “Squeezing Toothpaste” Segmentation Most areas of small Intestine & some portions of Large Intestine: Undergo cycles of contractions that churn & Fragment bolus mixing the content with intestinal secretions. No Set Pattern!!! Segmentations does not push materials along tract in ANY ONE direction
- 64. Control of Digestive Functions Local Factors Neural Mechanisms Hormonal Mechanisms Changes in pH (Chemoceptors) Local Factors stimulated by the presence of Chemicals: Prostagladins, Histamine, & Other chemicals released into interstitial fluid may affect adjacent cells within a small segment of the tract (Stretch Receptors) Stretching of the Intestinal Wall: Stimulate localized contractions of smooth muscles CNS = “Long Reflexes” Large Scale Peristalsis & Local Reflexes ENS = “Short Reflexes” Sensory Information from Receptors in the digestive tract is distributed to the CNS trigger long reflexes (Motor & Interneurons) Sensory Receptors: in the walls of the Digestive Tract: Trigger Peristaltic Waves Motor Neurons: Control Smooth muscle contraction & Glandular Secretion are located in the Myentric plexus Usually Considered parasympathetic Enhance or Diminish sensitivity smooth muscle cells to Neural command EnteroEndocrine Cells Travel by Bloodstream produce peptides (Endocrine Cells in the epithelium of the digestive tract) Local Factors Stretch chemoReceptors Myentric Plexus CNS Secretory Cells Enter endocrine Cells Carried By the Blood stream Peristalsis & Segment Movements Hormones Released Buffer Acids & Enzymes Released Long Reflexes Short Reflexes
- 65. Oral Cavity & Salivary Glands Pharynx Esophagus Stomach (HCl, Pepsin) DuodenumJejunumIleumCecum Ascending Colon Transverse Colon Descending Colon Sigmoid Colon RectumAnus Alimentary Canal “Journey of Food” Esophagus Oral Cavity Pharynx 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 89 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
- 66. Histology Layers Mucosa Mucosal Epithelium Moistened by: Glandular Secretions Stratified Squamous & Simple Columnar Stratified Squamous Mechanical Stresses: Oral Cavity, Pharynx & Esophagus Simple Columnar with mucous Glands scattered Entoendocrine Cells: secrete hormones Absorption: Stomach, Small intestine & Large intestine Permanent Transverse Folds: Plicae Circularis Purpose: Increase Surface Areas Longitudinal folds: disappear tract fills up Lamina Propria Areolar Tissue Contains: Blood vessels Sensory nerve endings Lymphatic vessels Smooth muscle cells Scattered areas of lymphatic tissue Muscularis Mucosae Narrow band of smooth muscle & elastic fibers in lamina propria Smooth muscle cells arranged in two concentric layers: Inner layer Circular Outer layer Longitudinal Purpose: to squeeze lymphatic, get fat out to have room & absorb more Submucosa Dense Irregular Connective Tissue Contains: Has large blood vessels and lymphatic vessels May contain exocrine glands Secrete buffers and enzymes into digestive tract Submucosal Plexus Muscularis Externa Peristalsis Peristalsis: Involved in: Mechanical processing Movement of materials along digestive tract Movements coordinated by enteric nervous system (ENS); 3rd set of ANS a. Sensory neurons b. Interneurons c. Motor neurons ENS Innervated primarily by parasympathetic division of ANS Sympathetic postganglionic fibers The mucosa The myenteric plexus Turn on … movement of divgestive materials Serosa Mouth, Pharynx, Esophagus & inferior part of large intestine: Adventita "network of collagen fiber" Rest of digestive tract: Serosa or visceral Peritoneum "loose Connective Tissue" Epithelial Renewal& Repair These cells keep pace with the rate of cell destruction Esophagus (2-3 days) & Large intestine (6 days) The High rate of cell division explains why radiation & anticancer drugs that inhibit mitosis have drastic effects on the digestive tract
- 68. Submucosa Mucosa Muscularis Externa Serosa Lacteal Peyer’s Patch Brunner's Gland Villi Circular Longitudinal Lamina propria Muscularis Mucosae Plicae Circularis Esophagus & Pharynx Large Intestines Small IntestinesStomach Esophagus & Pharynx Stomach Small Intestine Large Intestine 43 4 2 3 1 1 2 2 1 6 11 3 4 5 7 8 9 10 12 13 14
- 69. Histology Esophagus: Stratified Squamous Stomach: Simple Columnar Mucosa “Gastric Pits” Submucosa Muscularis Externa All 3 layers Mucosa 1 2 3 4 6 5 7 8
- 70. 1.Oral Cavity Functions of The Oral Cavity 1. sensory analysis Of materialbefore swallowing 2. Mechanical processing Through actionsof teeth, tongue, and palatalsurfaces 3. Lubrication Mixing with mucus and salivarygland secretions 4. Limited digestion Ofcarbohydratesandlipids Oral Mucosa Tongue • Lining of oral cavity stratified squamous • cheeks, lips, and inferior surface of tongue Is relatively thin, nonkeratinized, and delicate • Inferior to tongue is thin and vascular enough to rapidly absorb lipid-soluble drugs • Cheeks are supported by pads of fat and the buccinators muscles Manipulates materials inside mouth Functions of the tongue 1. Mechanical processing by compression, abrasion, and distortion 2. Manipulation to assist in chewing and to prepare material for swallowing 3. Sensory analysis by touch, temperature, and taste receptors 4. Secretion of mucins and the enzyme lingual lipase
- 71. Decidious & Permanent Teeth Teeth Crown Neck Root Peridontal Ligament 1 2 3 45 6 7 MolarIncisor Premolar Canines 1110 12 13 8 9
- 73. 2. Pharynx Food passes through the oropharynx and laryngopharynx to the esophagus
- 74. 3.Esophagusus Resting Muscle Tone In the circularmuscle layer in the superior3 cm (1.2 in.) of esophagus prevents air from entering Swallowing Also called deglutition Can be initiated voluntarily Proceeds automatically three phases 1.Buccal phase 2.Pharyngeal phase 3.Esophageal phase Collapsed When Not Eating
- 75. Regulation of Gastric Activity Production of acid and enzymes by the gastric mucosa can be: Controlled by the CNS Regulated by short reflexes of ENS Regulated by hormones of digestive tract Three phases of gastric control 1. Cephalic phase 2. Gastric phase 3. Intestinal phase
- 76. Major Regions Cardia Fondus Pylorus "Pyloric Sphincter" Body Curvuture & Momentum Lesser Curvuture & Lesser Momentum Greater Curvuture & Greater Momentum Smooth Muscle Layers (Liquefy chyme) Oblique Layer Circular Layer Longitudinal Layer Stomach “Rugae Inside! Helps Expand” Pyloric Sphincter Cardiac Sphincter 2 1 5 6 4 3 8 7 Stomach contents Become more fluid pH approaches 2.0 Pepsin activity increases Protein disassembly begins Althoughdigestion occurs in the stomach, nutrients are not absorbed there
- 77. 1 2
- 78. Major Regions Duodenum Jejunum Ileum Segment Properties Submucosal: Brunner Gland secrete Alkaline Mucin Sphincter of Odi Many intestinal Crypts “Glands” manufacture enzymes for chemical digestion Many Villi increase surface area for nutrient absorption Peyer’s Patch Ileocecal Valve Small Intestines Special Properties Plicae Circularis Villi Base: Intestinal gland/ crypts of Lieberkuhn secrete enzymes & pH buffers Microvilli Lacteal Lymphatic vessel absorb Fatty Acids Small Intestine Duodenum Jejunum Ileum Ileocecal Valve Sphincter of Odi 1 5 2 4 3
- 79. HistologyDeuodenum “Shorter Villi & more glands” Jejunum “Longer Villi” Ileum “ look for Peyers patch” 1 1 1 4 Peyer’s Patch
- 80. Passageway 1. Cecum "Appendix " 2. Ascending Colon 3. Transverse Colon 4. Descending Colon 5. Sigmoid Colon 6. Rectum 7. Anus Flexures Right Colic (Hepatic Flexure) Ascending Transverse Left (Colic) splenic Flexure Transverse Descending Muscles Of Large Intestine Tenia Coli "Longitudinal layer of muscular Externa; 3 bands" Hausta Large Intestine Haustra 4 3 2 1 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
- 81. Exocrine & Endocrine Acini Cells Secrete Enzymes Pancreatic Islets Glucagon & Insulin Pancreas Plicae Circularis 1 2
- 82. Histology Pancrease Islet of Langerhans Acinar Cells Excreting Enzymes to aid in chemical Digestion 1 2 3
- 83. Gallbladder "muscular sac; stores & concentrates bile salts used in the digestion of lipids” Common Hepatic Duct (Liver) Cystic Duct (Gallbladder) Common Bile Duct Gall Bladder Liver Common Bile Duct Sphincter of Oddi 7 2 3 4 5 6 1
- 84. Gallbladder Cystic Duct Common Hepatic Duct Common Bile Duct 4 3 2 1
- 87. Hepatocytes Secrete Bile “Dish Soap” Bile Canaliculi Bile Ductules “Surrounds each Lobule” Right & Left Hepatic Ducts Common Hepatic Duct Sinusoids (Central Canal) “Receives Blood from Hepatic artery or Hepatic Portal Vein” Central Vein
- 89. Histology Lobules Hepatic Triad Sinusoids & Hepatocytes Lobule Lobule Lobule Lobule Lobule Lobule 3 4 2 1 1 1 1 1