The document discusses different methods of analyzing vibration signals, including frequency analysis and overall level measurements. It explains that frequency analysis provides more detailed information about signal sources than time signals alone. Both linear and logarithmic scales can be used to present vibration data, with logarithmic scales better able to show changes across a wide frequency range. Different types of filters, such as those with constant bandwidth or constant percentage bandwidth, can be used in frequency analysis.
Embedded systems increasingly employ digital, analog and RF signals all of which are tightly synchronized in time. Debugging these systems is challenging in that one needs to measure a number of different signals in one or more domains (time, digital, frequency) and with tight time synchronization. This session will discuss how a digital oscilloscope can be used to effectively debug these systems, and some of the instrumentation considerations that go along with this.
AREA EFFICIENT & COST EFFECTIVE PULSE SHAPING FILTER FOR SOFTWARE RADIOS ijasuc
In this paper area efficient and cost effective techniques for design of pulse shaping filter have been
presented to improve the computational and implementation complexity. Pulse shaping filters have been
designed and implemented by using Raised cosine filter, Nyquist filter and optimized half band filters for
software defined radio (SDR) based wireless applications. The performance of different filters is compared
in terms of BER and hardware requirements. The results show that the BER performance of the optimized
designs is almost identical to the Raised cosine filter with significant reduction in hardware requirements.
The hardware saving of 60% to 90% can be achieved by replacing the Raised cosine filter with proposed
filters to provide cost effective solution for wireless communication applications.
(Slides from Live webinar on September 25, 2014, presented by Mike Schnecker. Watch the webinar On-Demand here: http://goo.gl/LkjUUg)
Attendees Will Learn:
An overview of switched mode power supplies
Common measurements (ie, what to measure and why)
Circuit loading and probing considerations
How instrument specifications impact measurement accuracy
Switched mode power supplies have become ubiquitous in electronics as they provide precise voltages including high power with very high efficiency. The efficiency of these power supplies requires low loss power transistors and the design requires measurement of highly dynamic voltages. Voltage levels can vary from millivolts to hundreds of volts in some applications.
In this webinar, the proper use of a digital oscilloscope to accurately measure these voltages will be discussed along with key aspects of instrument performance such as noise and overdrive recovery that affect the accuracy of the measurement.
Embedded systems increasingly employ digital, analog and RF signals all of which are tightly synchronized in time. Debugging these systems is challenging in that one needs to measure a number of different signals in one or more domains (time, digital, frequency) and with tight time synchronization. This session will discuss how a digital oscilloscope can be used to effectively debug these systems, and some of the instrumentation considerations that go along with this.
AREA EFFICIENT & COST EFFECTIVE PULSE SHAPING FILTER FOR SOFTWARE RADIOS ijasuc
In this paper area efficient and cost effective techniques for design of pulse shaping filter have been
presented to improve the computational and implementation complexity. Pulse shaping filters have been
designed and implemented by using Raised cosine filter, Nyquist filter and optimized half band filters for
software defined radio (SDR) based wireless applications. The performance of different filters is compared
in terms of BER and hardware requirements. The results show that the BER performance of the optimized
designs is almost identical to the Raised cosine filter with significant reduction in hardware requirements.
The hardware saving of 60% to 90% can be achieved by replacing the Raised cosine filter with proposed
filters to provide cost effective solution for wireless communication applications.
(Slides from Live webinar on September 25, 2014, presented by Mike Schnecker. Watch the webinar On-Demand here: http://goo.gl/LkjUUg)
Attendees Will Learn:
An overview of switched mode power supplies
Common measurements (ie, what to measure and why)
Circuit loading and probing considerations
How instrument specifications impact measurement accuracy
Switched mode power supplies have become ubiquitous in electronics as they provide precise voltages including high power with very high efficiency. The efficiency of these power supplies requires low loss power transistors and the design requires measurement of highly dynamic voltages. Voltage levels can vary from millivolts to hundreds of volts in some applications.
In this webinar, the proper use of a digital oscilloscope to accurately measure these voltages will be discussed along with key aspects of instrument performance such as noise and overdrive recovery that affect the accuracy of the measurement.
Geometric modeling: Wire frame, surface and solid modeling - Engineering analysis;
design review and evaluation, automated drafting.
Numerical control: Need - advantages and disadvantages – classifications – Point to
point, straight cut and contouring positioning - incremental and absolute systems – open
loop and closed loop systems – DDA integrator and Interpolators – resolution – CNC and
DNC.
Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC): need – relays - logic ladder program –
timers, simple problems only - Devices in N.C. systems: Driving devices - feed
back devices: encoders, moire fringes, digitizer, resolver, inductosyn, and
tachometer.
Computer Aided Process Planning (CAPP): concepts; traditional and CAPP; automated
process planning: process planning, general methodology of group technology, code
structures of variant and generative process planning methods, AI in process planning,
process planning software.
Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS): Introduction, types, concepts, need and
advantages of FMS - cellular and FMS - JIT and GT applied to FMS.
Evolution of CAD/CAM and CIM, computers and workstation, elements of interactive
graphics, input/ out put display, storage devices in CAD, – networking of CAD systems -
2D Graphics: line drawing algorithms, DDA line algorithm – circle drawing,
bressnham`s circle drawing algorithm– 2D Transformation: translation, rotation, scaling,
reflection – clipping -3D Graphics (basic only).
Machining and Thermal aspects (MGU S8 ME)Denny John
Thermal aspects of machining: Source of heat, temperature distribution pattern in chip,
shear plane and work piece, effect of speed, feed and depth of cut – tool temperature
measurement - Tool materials: properties of tool material, Carbon steel, HSS (
classification, structure, composition, properties) - cemented Carbides (structure,
properties), indexable inserts, coated WC, cermets – alumina (ceramic), sialon, cubic
Boron Nitride (cBN), diamond, diamond coated tools – Tool wear: flank and crater
wear – Tool wear mechanisms: adhesion, abrasion, diffusion and fatigue – Tool life,
Taylor’s equation, applications - effect of rake angle, clearance angle, chip temperature
and cutting time on tool life, simple problems - Tool wear criterion: allowable wear
land etc - Economics of machining – machineability of Ti, Al, Cu alloys and
machineability index – cutting force (quartz crystal dynamometer) - Cutting fluids:
effect of specific heat on selection of fluids, functions, classifications, specific
applications.
Ceramic Structures and properties: - coordination number and radius rations - AX,
AmXp, AmBmXp type crystal structures – imperfections in ceramics- phase diagrams of
Al2O3 – Cr2O3 and MgO- Al2O3 only – mechanical properties – mechanisms of plastic
deformation – ceramic application in heat engine, ceramic armor and electronic
packaging.
NC part programming: part programming fundamentals - manual programming – NC coordinate
systems and axes – tape format – sequence number, preparatory functions,
dimension words, speed word, feed world, tool world, miscellaneous functions –
programming exercises.
Computer aided part programming: concept and need of CAP – CNC languages – APT
language structure: geometry commands, motion commands, postprocessor commands,
compilation control commands – programming exercises – programming with interactive
graphics.
The article presents problems related to vibration
diagnostics in reciprocating compressors. This paper presents
the evaluation of several techniques of the digital signal process-
ing, such as the spectrum calculation with the Discrete Fourier
Transform (DFT), Continuous Wavelet Transform (CWT), Seg-
mented Analysis for detection the spring failure in reciprocating
compressor valve with the help of the vibration monitoring. The
experimental investigation to collect the data from the com-
pressor with both the faultless valve and the valve with spring
failure was conducted.
Three 112DV1 vibration acceleration
probes manufactured by TIK were mounted on the cylinder
of the compressor. The keyphasor probe was mounted on the
compressor’s flywheel. The signal of the vibration acceleration
probe mounted on the top of the cylinder was used for the
Condition Monitoring and Fault Detection of the valve.
The
TIK-RVM system of monitoring and data acquisition was used
for gathering the signal samples from the probes. The sampling
frequency was 30193.5 Hz, signal length was 65535 samples. To
imitate the spring fault, the exhaust valve spring was replaced by
the shortened one with the same stiffness. As it can be seen from
the signal processing results in the article, the techniques used
are showing quite different results for the cases of the normal
valve spring and the short one. It seems what for this type of
the compressor and valve, the valve spring failure can be quite
reliably detected with the help of the vibration monitoring. To
see if this is a case for other compressor types and other valve
types, the additional experiments are needed.
Analysis of Butterworth and Chebyshev Filters for ECG Denoising Using WaveletsIOSR Journals
Abstract: A wide area of research has been done in the field of noise removal in Electrocardiogram signals.. Electrocardiograms (ECG) play an important role in diagnosis process and providing information regarding heart diseases. In this paper, we propose a new method for removing the baseline wander interferences, based on discrete wavelet transform and Butterworth/Chebyshev filtering. The ECG data is taken from non-invasive fetal electrocardiogram database, while noise signal is generated and added to the original signal using instructions in MATLAB environment. Our proposed method is a hybrid technique, which combines Daubechies wavelet decomposition and different thresholding techniques with Butterworth or Chebyshev filter. DWT has good ability to decompose the signal and wavelet thresholding is good in removing noise from decomposed signal. Filtering is done for improved denoising performence. Here quantitative study of result evaluation has been done between Butterworth and Chebyshev filters based on minimum mean squared error (MSE), higher values of signal to interference ratio and peak signal to noise ratio in MATLAB environment using wavelet and signal processing toolbox. The results proved that the denoised signal using Butterworth filter has a better balance between smoothness and accuracy than the Chebvshev filter. Keywords: Electrocardiogram, Discrete Wavelet transform, Baseline Wandering, Thresholding, Butterworth, Chebyshev
Design of Microcontroller Based Multi-Frequency Ultrasonic Pulser ReceiverIJERA Editor
Ultrasonic technique is widely accepted as a characterizing tool because of its non destructive nature. Great
technical advancement in ultrasonic apparatuses over the last few years has permitted their increased use. In the
present work, an attempt has been made to develop an ultrasonic pulser receiver for pulse echo technique which
gives pulsed RF of desired frequency on selection from PC without shifting to another oscillator. A
microcontroller (ATMega16) controlled oscillator generates required frequencies on receiving a command. A
pulse repetition frequency (PRF) is generated by microcontroller in such a way to give fixed number of RF
cycles for each selected frequency. The receiver section receives the echoes from the same transducer, rectifies
and amplifies it and is projected to oscilloscope for further study. The designed multi frequency ultrasonic pulser
receiver system has been tested in standard liquids for velocity measurements.
UNDER WATER NOISE REDUCTION USING WAVELET AND SAVITZKY-GOLAYcsandit
A precise, linear indication of the depth of water in a specific part of water body is what always
required. Presently there are a wide variety of ways to produce a signal that tracks the depth of
water.The Ultrasonic signal is most commonly used for the depth estimation. This signal is
affected by various underwater noises which results in inaccurate depth estimation. The
objective of this paper is to provide noise reduction methods for underwater acoustic signal.In
present work, the signal processing is done on the data collected using TC2122 dual frequency
transducer along with the Navisound 415 echo sounder. There are two signal processing
techniques which are used: The first method is denoising algorithm based on Stationary wavelet
transform (SWT)and second method is Savitzky-Golay filter. The results are evaluated based on
the criteria of peak signal to noise ratio and 3D Surfer plots of the dam reservoir whose depth
estimation has to be done.
Spectrum Sensing Detection with Sequential Forward Search in Comparison to Kn...IJMTST Journal
FCC is currently working on the concept of white space users “borrowing” spectrum from free license
holders temporarily to improve the spectrum utilization.
This project provides a relation between a Pf and the SNR value of any spectrum detector to have a
certain performance. Previous spectrum sensing detection techniques are only suitable for Low SNR and
are based on signal information values. But these methods are purely narrow band spectrum applications
In order to overcome the above said drawbacks we propose a novel method of spectrum sensing method
and is suitable for low and high SNR values, the sensed spectrum applicable for wide band applications.
Our proposed method does not require signal information at the receiver and channel information, because
this flexibility sensing rate is very high compared to previous techniques.
2024.06.01 Introducing a competency framework for languag learning materials ...Sandy Millin
http://sandymillin.wordpress.com/iateflwebinar2024
Published classroom materials form the basis of syllabuses, drive teacher professional development, and have a potentially huge influence on learners, teachers and education systems. All teachers also create their own materials, whether a few sentences on a blackboard, a highly-structured fully-realised online course, or anything in between. Despite this, the knowledge and skills needed to create effective language learning materials are rarely part of teacher training, and are mostly learnt by trial and error.
Knowledge and skills frameworks, generally called competency frameworks, for ELT teachers, trainers and managers have existed for a few years now. However, until I created one for my MA dissertation, there wasn’t one drawing together what we need to know and do to be able to effectively produce language learning materials.
This webinar will introduce you to my framework, highlighting the key competencies I identified from my research. It will also show how anybody involved in language teaching (any language, not just English!), teacher training, managing schools or developing language learning materials can benefit from using the framework.
Macroeconomics- Movie Location
This will be used as part of your Personal Professional Portfolio once graded.
Objective:
Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
Francesca Gottschalk - How can education support child empowerment.pptxEduSkills OECD
Francesca Gottschalk from the OECD’s Centre for Educational Research and Innovation presents at the Ask an Expert Webinar: How can education support child empowerment?
Unit 8 - Information and Communication Technology (Paper I).pdfThiyagu K
This slides describes the basic concepts of ICT, basics of Email, Emerging Technology and Digital Initiatives in Education. This presentations aligns with the UGC Paper I syllabus.
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
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Transducer Preamplifier Detector/
Filter(s) Output
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5HPHPEHU The system is never stronger than the weakest link in the chain.
Having covered the transducers and preamplifiers in the previous lecture, we
have come to the last part of the chain, the ways of analysing the output
signals of the preamplifier.
After analysis, which today can have many different forms, the result will be
presented as an output to screen, paper or storage medium.
As this is what the user normally will see, it is imperative to choose a suitable
output format as discussed later in this lecture.
Page 2
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E Vibration
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Frequency
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The frequency spectrum gives in many cases a detailed information about
the signal sources which cannot be obtained from the time signal. The
example shows measurement and frequency analysis of the vibration signal
measured on a gearbox. The frequency spectrum gives information on the
vibration level caused by rotating parts and tooth meshing. It hereby
becomes a valuable aid in locating sources of increased or undesirable
vibration from these and other sources.
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The process of Frequency Analysis is as follows: By sending a signal
through a filter and at the same time sweeping the filter over the frequency
range of interest (or having a bank of filters) it is possible to get a measure of
the signal level at different frequencies. The result is called a Frequency
Spectrum.
Page 4
BA 7676-12, 4
Acc.
Level
Frequency
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The simplest way to express the condition of any system is to assign only
one number to it. This is often done using the RMS detector output, and this
gives a number expressing the vibration energy level. However it does not
give much possibility to make any kind of diagnosis. For that we need more
parameters.
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The frequency spectrum gives in many cases a detailed information about
the signal sources which cannot be obtained from the time signal. This
permits many kind of diagnoses to be made. The frequency content can be
found in many different ways, using scanning filter, filter banks or as it is the
case mostly today a digital treatment of a record using Fourier
Transformation.
Page 5
BA 7676-12, 5
Overall
Level
Frequency
Spectrum
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Fan
Vibration
Gearbox
Frequency Spectrum Overall Level
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To decide whether monitoring or testing of the overall level is sufficient or a
complete frequency spectrum is required, the test engineer must know his
machine and something about the most likely faults to occur or which part of
the object is of interest.
The illustration shows two different situations in monitoring, but it might as
well be testing:
Monitoring of a fan: The most likely fault to occur is unbalance, which will
give an increase in the vibration level at the speed of rotation. This will
normally also be the highest level in the spectrum. To see if unbalance is
developing, it is therefore sufficient to measure the overall level at regular
intervals. The overall level will reflect the increase just as well as the
spectrum.
Monitoring of a gearbox: Damaged or worn gears will show up as an
increase in the vibration level at the tooth meshing frequencies (shaft RPM
number of teeth) and their harmonics. The levels at these frequencies are
normally much lower than the highest level in the frequency spectrum, so it
is necessary to use a full spectrum comparison to reveal a developing fault.
A general rule is overall measurements are permissible for simple, non
critical machines, while more complex, more critical machinery requires
spectral analysis.
Page 6
BA 7676-12, 6
Date
Frequency
Vibration
Frequency Date
7. Page 7
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BA 7676-12, 7
l Linear vs. Log Scaling
l Amplitude in dB?
l Linear and Logarithmic Frequency Scales
– Decades
– Octaves
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It is always important to put some effort into choosing the best way to present
data.
The simplest is to choose linear scales with ranges dictated by the range of
data, but often this does not permit important data to be clearly seen.
Therefore logarithmic scales are often used, sometimes for level using dBs
or just with appropriate numbers at the tick marks, sometimes for the
frequency maybe with decades or octaves as indications.
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1/10 1/2
Page 8
BA 7676-12, 8
0 1/2 1
Empty Full
0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1
0 1/5 1
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0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1
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Let us forget vibration for a few minutes.
The situation shown here is well known to most people. Often it is difficult to
judge the amount of petrol left in the car when the petrol gauge has a linear
scale. If the petrol gauge had a logarithmic scale, the lower end of the scale
would be “stretched“ so that the amount of petrol left in the tank could be
more easily seen. Note that the logarithmic scale has no zero.
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0.01 1 Decade
1
Page 9
BA 7676-12, 9
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0 0.1 0.5 1
Linear
1 Decade
1 2 5 10 25 50
1
2
2
5
5
10
10
0.01 0.1 1 10 100
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20
20
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100
100
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Which scale to use depends on the unit to be scaled. Distance and time
scales are typical examples of linear scales, but for scaling of units where the
ratio between two values is of more interest than the absolute value it is an
advantage to use logarithmic scales e.g. the different coins and notes in our
monetary systems have values which, when plotted on a logarithmic scale,
show approximately equal “distance” between adjacent values.
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120 Hz 50 Hz
Page 10
Vibration
Level
BA 7676-12, 10
200 400 600 800 1K 1,2K 1,4K 1,6K 1,8K 2K Hz
20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K 20K
Linear
Frequency
Logarithmic
Frequency
0
Vibration
Level
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Both linear and logarithmic frequency scales are used in connection with
vibration measurement. The linear frequency scale has the advantage that it
is easy to identify harmonically related components in the signal. The
logarithmic scale, however, has the advantage that a much wider frequency
range can be covered in a reasonable space and each decade is given the
same emphasis. The signal shown here is the vibration signal from a
gearbox plotted with the two different scales. The harmonically related
components in the signal are easily identified on the linear scale and the
logarithmic scale gives many details in the low end while it covers a 10 times
wider frequency range at the same time.
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Frequency Frequency
f1 f0 f2
f1 f0 f2
Bandwidth = f2 – f1
Centre Frequency = f0
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Having chosen a frequency scale, the next step is to choose the form of the
many individual filters which are used to make the analysis. This illustration
shows the properties of an ideal filter and real filters.
An ideal band pass filter will only allow signals with frequencies within the
pass band (bandwidth B = f2 - f1 ) to pass. Ideal filters do not exist, however.
In practical filters, signals with frequencies outside the passband will also go
through, although in an attenuated form. The further away from the pass
band, the more attenuated the signals will be. The bandwidth of practical
filters can be specified in two different ways:
1. The 3dB (or half power) Bandwidth
2. The Effective Noise Bandwidth
The 3 dB bandwidth and the effective noise bandwidth are almost identical
for most practical filters with good selectivity.
12. Constant Bandwidth Constant Percentage Bandwidth
Linear
Frequency
Page 12
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BA 7676-12, 12
B = x Hz
B = 31,6 Hz
B = 10 Hz
B = 3,16 Hz
or Relative Bandwidth
B = 1 octave
B = 1/3 octave
B = 3%
B = y% =
y ´ f0
100
0 20 40 60 80 50 70 100 150 200
Logarithmic
Frequency
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Two types of band pass filters are used for frequency analysis.
1. Constant Bandwidth filters where the bandwidth is constant and
independent of the centre frequency of the filter.
2. Constant Percentage Bandwidth (CPB) filters, where the bandwidth is
specified as a certain percentage of the centre frequency i.e. the
bandwidth is increasing for an increase in centre frequency. CPB filters
are some times called Relative Bandwidth filters.
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1 2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 1k 2k 5k 10k
Page 13
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When using constant bandwidth filters it is recommended to use linear
frequency scales, when the result is to be displayed. See what happens if a
logarithmic frequency scale is used!
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When using constant percentage bandwidth filters it is recommended to use
logarithmic frequency scales, when the result is to be displayed. See what
happens if a linear frequency scale is used!
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120 Hz 50 Hz
Page 15
Vibration
Level
BA 7676-12, 15
200 400 600 800 1K 1,2K 1,4K 1,6K 1,8K 2K Hz
20 50 100 200 500 1K 2K 5K 10K 20K
Linear
Frequency
Logarithmic
Frequency
0
Vibration
Level
/LQHDUYV/RJDULWKPLF)UHTXHQF6FDOHV
If the right combination of filter type and frequency scale is chosen, the
frequency spectra look alike.
To know if the analysis is done with constant bandwith filters or with CPB
filters just have a look at the scaling of the frequency axis.
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Depends on the actual application.
5XOHRIWKXPE: Analysis with constant bandwidth filters (and linear scales) is
mainly used in connection with vibration measurements, because signals
from mechanical structures (especially machines) often contain harmonic
series and sideband structures. These are most easily identified on a linear
frequency scale.
Analysis with CPB filters (and logarithmic scales) is almost always used in
connection with acoustic measurements, because it gives a fairly close
approximation to how the human ear responds. In connection with vibration
measurements, the CPB bandwidth filter is used for measurement of
structural responses, and for survey of the condition of machines (3 decades
can easily be covered by CPB bandwidth filters).
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The narrower the bandwidth used, the more detailed is the information
obtained.
The filter bandwidth need to be selected in such a way that the important
frequency components can be distinguished from one another. However it
also has to be large enough to get the analysis done in a reasonable time.
The more detailed (narrow band) analysis however requires a longer
analysis time.
Page 16
BA 7676-12, 16
Vibration
Level
Frequency
Vibration
Level
Frequency
Filter
width
Frequency
Spectrum
Frequency
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B = bandwidth
T = time
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Page 17
BA 7676-12, 17
(often called the Uncertainty Principle)
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The statement BT ³ 1 sometimes called the Uncertainty Principle, tells us
that if we choose a very small bandwidth B, then we need a corresponding
measurement time T which is very large, and there is no way around this
basic principle. We can also explain it by saying that if we want to know
whether there is a signal at 1 Hz (i.e. with a 1 second period) then we need
at least to wait for one period of the signal before we can say much.
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1000 1000
Page 18
BA 7676-12, 18
´ 3.16
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l Constant factor changes are equally displayed for all levels
l Optimal way of displaying a large dynamic range
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It is often the case that interesting frequency components in a vibration
spectrum have a much lower amplitude than the dominant components.
These low levels will hardly be registered if a linear amplitude scale is used.
It is therefore common practice to use logarithmic amplitude scales. The
logarithmic amplitude scale may be marked off in mechanical units, such as
ms-2, but often the decibel (dB) scale is used.
*HWWLQJ0RUH2XWRI'DWD
An obvious consequence of the logarithmic amplitude scale is the chance to
get the most out of existing data, since more can be seen at one time,
without needing to change the display. This display also has the added
advantage of compressing the effect of random fluctuations, both in machine
vibration signal, and in noise.
19. 1 G% 2 10
Page 19
7KHG%6FDOH
Acceleration
BA 7676-12, 19
dB
re. 10-6 m/s2
Acceleration
m/s2
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æ
D
´ 3.16 = 10 dB
æ
ö
´ 3.16 = 10 dB
ö
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´ 3.16 = 10 dB
1000
316
100
31.6
10
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50
40
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10 ( ) 10log 20log
Frequency
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The dB scale reduces the considerable numerical span of the normal log
scale to a compact linear numbering system. The dB scale is such that a
given percentage interval in, say, acceleration level is represented by a given
number of dB’s. This is a great advantage when dealing with vibration
signals, since we are often very interested in a percentage change in the
vibration level rather than in the actual levels. Zero dB on the dB scale can
be chosen for any vibration level e.g. 1ms-2. The level 10-6 ms-2 has,
however, been internationally chosen as the reference level for acceleration.
(Be careful however, some US and CDN military applications use 10-6 g as a
reference!)
7KHG%)RUPXOD
Conversion from actual level to dB or vice versa can easily be performed
using this formula. The calculation can easily be carried out with a pocket
calculator.
20. 7UDQVPLVVLRQRI9LEUDWLRQ
System
Response
(Mobility)
+ =
8 dB
8 dB
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Critical vibration components usually occur at low amplitudes compared to the
rotational frequency vibration. These components are not revealed on a linear
amplitude scale because low amplitudes are compressed at the bottom of the
scale. But a logarithmic scale shows prominent vibration components equally
well at any amplitude. Moreover, percent change in amplitude may be read
directly as dB change. Therefore noise and vibration frequency analyses are
usually plotted on a logarithmic amplitude scale.
What determines the magnitude of vibration?
What is creating the vibration?
It must be understood that when we measure vibration, it is often a
compromise. We would much rather measure the forces generating the
vibration directly. This is practically impossible. So we measure the result of
the force, which is the vibration. The vibration spectrum, and even the overall
level, is indirectly linked to the force spectrum, or overall level, via the mobility
function. The diagram shows an interesting mobility phenomenon. The force
spectrum contains a peak at the frequency shown. However, because the
mobility has an “anti-resonance” at that same frequency, the vibration
spectrum contains no significant peak at that frequency. This shows that it is
not only the largest peaks in a spectrum that we should be interested in. But
note that an 8 dB increase in force will still show as an 8 dB increase in
vibration.
Page 20
BA 7676-12, 20
891875
Input + = Vibration
Forces
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l Imbalance
l Shock
l Friction
l Acoustic
6WUXFWXUDO
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l Mass
l Stiffness
l Damping
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l Acceleration
l Velocity
l Displacement
Frequency
Frequency Frequency
21. ³5HDO:RUOG´9LEUDWLRQ/HYHOV
ms-2 dB
Page 21
BA 7676-12, 21
1 000 000
1000
1
0.001
0.000 001
240
180
120
60
0
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With piezoelectric accelerometers we are able to detect a vibration amplitude
range of almost 100 000 Million to 1 (1011:1); with a dB scale this range is
reduced to a manageable 220 dB. The dynamic range of a single
accelerometer will, however, typically be 108.
22. 9LEUDWLRQ3DUDPHWHUV
Relative Amplitude
100 000
10 000
1000
10
100
1000
10 000
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If the type of measurement being carried out does not call for a particular
parameter to be measured e.g. due to some standard, the general rule is that
the parameter giving the flattest response over the frequency range of
interest should be chosen. This will give the biggest dynamic range of the
whole measurement set up. If the frequency response is not known start by
choosing velocity.
An advantage of the accelerometer is that its electrical output can be
integrated to give velocity and displacement signals.
This is important since it is best to perform the analysis on the signal which
has the flattest spectrum. If a spectrum is not reasonably flat, the contribution
of components lying well below the mean level, will be less noticeable. In the
case of overall measurements, smaller components might pass completely
undetected.
Page 22
BA 7676-12, 22
0.1 1 10 100 1 k 10 kHz
Frequency
10
1
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100
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100 000
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Page 23
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BA 7676-12, 23
Acc.
$
Choose
Vel.
Disp.
Displacement
Choose
Velocity
Acc.
Vel.
Disp.
0HDVXUHPHQW
Acc.
Vel.
Disp.
Choose
Acceleration
8VHWKH)ODWWHVW6SHFWUXP
In most cases this will mean that velocity is used as the detection parameter
on machine measurements. On some occasions acceleration may also be
suitable, although most machines will exhibit large vibration accelerations
only at high frequencies. It is rare to find displacement spectra which are flat
over a wide frequency range, since most machines will only exhibit large
vibration displacements at low frequencies.
In the absence of frequency analysis instrumentation to initially check the
spectra, it is safest to make velocity measurements (but still using the
accelerometer, of course, since even the integrated accelerometer signal
gives a better dynamic and frequency range than the velocity transducer
signal).
24. Page 24
BA 7676-12, 24
Vibration
Level
7KH'HWHFWRU$YHUDJHU
Peak-Peak
Peak-Peak
Time
RMS
Peak Peak-
Peak
Time
Hold
Peak
RMS
Vibration
'HWHFWRU$YHUDJHU
The final link in the measurement chain before the display is the
Detector/Averager which converts the vibration signal into a level which can
be shown on the display.
The example here shows the output level (RMS, Peak, Peak-Peak or max.
Hold) for a burst of a sinusoidal signal of constant amplitude applied to the
input.
Notice how the output level decays when the input level drops giving rise to
fluctuations in the signal. The amount of fluctuation and decay is determined
by the averaging time chosen.
25. Page 25
$YHUDJLQJ7LPH
BA 7676-12, 25
Time
Averaging Time = 10 s
Averaging Time = 1 s
Time
Vibration
Level
(Peak)
Vibration
$YHUDJLQJ7LPH
With a short averaging time the detector will follow the level of a varying
signal very closely, in some cases making it difficult to read a result off the
display. If a longer time constant is used however some information might be
lost. This is especially true if the signal contains some impulses.
26. 6LJQDOYV6VWHP$QDOVLV
6VWHPYV6LJQDODQDOVLV
In most of the preceding slides it has been assumed that a vibration existed,
generated in some way by forces present in the system itself. When this
vibration signal is analyzer we call it Signal Analysis.
During development of new structures, and in some cases to analyse in
detail existing structures, it is a requirement to try to make a model of the
structure, in such a way that if input forces are given the output vibration can
be calculated.
The illustration shows such an application measuring the mobility by
introducing forces at different positions and measuring the input force
together with the output vibration. These types of measurements are used to
make a modal model of the structure, which can then be used to predict the
behaviour of the structure under given circumstances. The model can also
be used to predict the effect of changes in the structure, especially if it is
combined with Finite Element Modelling (FEM). This type of analysis is
called System Analysis, but it is beyond the scope of this lecture to cover this
in more detail.
Page 26
BA 7676-12, 26
Vibration
signal
Excitation
(Input)
Vibration
Response
(Output)
Signal Analysis System Analysis
27. This lecture should provide you with sufficient
information to:
l Choose the right vibration parameters to measure
l Present the measured data in a suitable way
l Understand the basic filter and analysis parameters
and limitations
l Understand the difference between signal and
system analysis
Page 27
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BA 7676-12, 27
28. /LWHUDWXUHIRU)XUWKHU5HDGLQJ
Page 28
BA 7676-12, 28
l Shock and Vibration Handbook (Harris and Crede, McGraw-Hill 1976)
l Frequency Analysis (Brüel Kjær Handbook BT 0007-11)
l Structural Testing Part 1 and 2
(Brüel Kjær Booklets BR 0458-12 and BR 0507-11)
l Brüel Kjær Technical Review
– No.2 - 1996 (BV 0049-11)
– No.2 - 1995 (BV 0047-11)
– No.2 - 1994 (BV 0045-11)
– No.1 - 1994 (BV 0044-11)
– No.1 - 1988 (BV 0033-11)
– No.4 - 1987 (BV 0032-11)