Of all the living things, the human body in particular has been a source of curiosity by most of us. No doubt, the field of biology, anatomy and physiology provide us a clear venue to explore and understand it.

1. Anatomy and Physiology:A
reviewer for LET examinees
by: Prof. Liwayway Memije-Cruz

2. Of all the living things, the human body
in particular has been a source of curiosity
by most of us. No doubt, the field of
biology, anatomy and physiology provide
us a clear venue to explore and
understand it. Questions like: Why we
look the way we do? Why we do the
things we do like walking, running,
feeling, seeing, hearing and a lot more
intrigue us.

3. The human body is a machine that does many
things. To do these things, it needs many parts. All
thesepartstogether arewhat weare.

4. What is Anatomy and Physiology?
Anatomy Physiology
thestudy of the
structureand
relationship
between body
parts.
thestudy of the
function of body
partsand the
body asawhole.

5. Organizations of living systems
Living systems can be defined from various perspectives, from the broad (looking at
the entire earth) to the minute (individual atoms). Each perspective provides
information about how or why a living system functions: At the chemical
level, atoms, molecules (combinations of atoms), and the chemical bonds between
atoms provide the framework upon which all living activity is based.
 The cell is the smallest unit of life. Organelles within the cell are specialized bodies
performing specific cellular functions. Cells themselves may be specialized. Thus,
there are nerve cells, bone cells, and muscle cells.
 A tissue is a group of similar cells performing a common function. Muscle tissue,
for example, consists of muscle cells.
 An organ is a group of different kinds of tissues working together to perform a
particular activity. The heart is an organ composed of muscle, nervous, connective,
and epithelial tissues.
 An organ system is two or more organs working together to accomplish a particular
task. The digestive system, for example, involves the coordinated activities of many
organs, including the mouth, stomach, small and large intestines, pancreas, and
liver.
 An organism is a system possessing the characteristics of living things—the ability to
obtain and process energy, the ability to respond to environmental changes, and the
ability to reproduce.

6. Levels of Organization

7. Theories on the Origin of Life

8. Divine Creation Theory
based on the
book of
Genesisin the
Bible; lifeis
believed to
havebeen
created by the
Almighty God.

9. Philosophical Theory of Eternity
life has a
beginning and
no end; life
has been here
right from the
very
beginning of
time

10. Theory of Panspermia or Cosmozoic Theory
or Spore broth Theory
proposed by Richter (1865).
According to this theory,
‘protoplasm’ reached the earth
in the form of spores or germs or
other simple particles from some
unknown part of the universe
with the cosmic dust, and
subsequently evolved into
various forms of life. Helmholz
(1884) speculated that
‘protoplasm’ in some form
reached the earth with falling
meteorites.

11. Big Bang Theory
heavenly bodies,
including the earth,
originated from the
explosion of a hot
rotating ball of gas
and eventually life
was formed from the
chemical evolution of
different compounds
present in the
primitive earth.

12. Abiogenesis
or
Spontaneous
Generation
Theory: life
originated
spontaneously
from non-living
things

13. Characteristics of Living Things
 Living things carry on metabolic functions. - Living things have the capacity to
perform a series of highly organized activities that take place within a definite
structural framework. These are nutrition, transport, respiration, excretion
synthesis, regulation, growth and motion.
 Living things reproduce. - Reproduction is the process by which man, animals
and plantscreatemoreof their own. It isvital for thesurvival and continuity of life.
 Living things respond to their environment. - All living things have the
capacity to respond to certain changes in their environment and this is what we call
irritability. However, what is environment in terms of the organisms? It is all the
living and non-living things around it. These could be air, soil, water, heat, and
light or any of the life forms that share with it. What about the changes or stimulus
from the environment? A stimulus is a factor or environmental change capable of
producing activity in an organism. This may be the light, temperature, water,
sound, pressure, or the presence of chemical substance or food source. The way an
organism reacts to a stimulus is what we call response. We have to take note and
consider that different organismsrespond in different ways.
 Living things need energy. - Chemical activities require the use of energy. In
as much as life is a state of constant chemical activity, energy should also be
constantly provided. Photosynthesis carried - on by the plants and the foods
consumed by animals are vital sources of energy, so both could grow, sustain and
reproduce.

14. Historical Background of the Cell
 Robert Hooke (1665) observed mass of tiny cavities from this slices of cork
with hisself-mademicroscope.
 Anton Van Leeuwenhoek (1674) discoveries concerning protozoa, red blood
cells, capillary systemsand thelifecycleof insects.
 Robert Brown (1831) observed plant cells with a distinct central part (nucleus);
described thestreaming movement of theCytoplasm (Brownian movement).
 Dujardin (1835) observed that cells were not empty but filled with thick, jelly-
likefluids(protoplasm).
 Matthias Schleiden (1838) concluded that plants are composed of cells and
formulated theplant cell theory
 Theodore Schwann (1839) concluded that animals are composed of cells and
formulated theanimal cell theory.
 Rudolf Virchow (1858) concluded that all cells must come only from pre-
existing cells.
 Max Knoll and Ernst Ruska (1932) built the first transmission electron
Microscope
 James Watson and Francis Crickdiscovered thestructureof DNA

15. Cell
Cells are the basic units of life. All living things are made
up of cells. Some animals and plants consist of only one
cell. Other plants and animals are made up of many cells.
The body of a man has more than a million of cells (100
trillion cells). A cell is composed primarily of four
elements – carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen and
trace elements. Living things are composed of over 60%
water. The major building substances of cells are proteins.
They are organized into groups and layers called tissues.
Cells vary in size from microscopic to over a meter in
length. The cells of different tissues vary in size, shape,
arrangement, and function. Intercellular materials whose
composition variesfrom solid to liquid separatecells

16. Morphology and Physiology of the Cell

17. Parts of a Typical Cell
Nucleus :Nucleus : governs the activities of the cell and is necessary for
reproduction. The nucleus contains genetic material called
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), which carries hereditary instructions
and directs the production of proteins. It is the structure, usually
found near the center of the cell that contains the cell’s hereditary
material.
A nucleus has the following characteristic structures:
Nuclear envelope, which is a two – membrane boundary between the
inside of the nucleus and that of the cytoplasm.
Nucleoplasm, which is the fluid portion of the nucleus.
Chromosomes, which are substances containing DNA, the cell’s
hereditary materials and package DNA and control gene expression.
Nucleolus, which is a dense cluster of DNA and materials used to
assemble the sub units of ribosome.

18. Plasma Membrane
The plasma membrane limits and encloses the cytoplasm
and acts as a selective barrier to the movement of
substances into and out of the cell. It is composed of a
bilipid layer containing proteins. The water - impermeable
lipid portion forms the basic fibers of the membranes.
Proteins act as enzymes or carriers in membrane
transport, form pores, provide reception sites for
hormones and other chemicals or play a role in cellular
replication and interactions during development and
immune reactions.

19. Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the part of the cell where most cellular activities occur. Its fluid
substance called cytosol contains inclusions, stoned or inactive such as fat globules,
water vacuoles, crystals in the cytoplasm and specialized bodies known as organelles.
The cytoplasm is a site of metabolic reactions, in which the cytoplasmic organelles play
specific roles.
The specialized organelles are:
 MITOCHONDRIA, WHICH ARE THE CELL’S POWER PLANTS, WHICHMITOCHONDRIA, WHICH ARE THE CELL’S POWER PLANTS, WHICH
PRODUCE MOST OF THE ENERGY.PRODUCE MOST OF THE ENERGY.
 GOLGI BODIES, WHICH TRANSPORT PROTEINS AND OTHER MATERIALS.GOLGI BODIES, WHICH TRANSPORT PROTEINS AND OTHER MATERIALS.
 LYSOSOMES, WHICH ARE FOR DEGRADATION AND RECYCLING OFLYSOSOMES, WHICH ARE FOR DEGRADATION AND RECYCLING OF
MATERIALS.MATERIALS.
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM, WHICH IS A SYSTEM OF DEEP CHANNELSENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM, WHICH IS A SYSTEM OF DEEP CHANNELS
THAT WINDS THROUGHOUT THE CYTOPLASM. MANUFACTURESTHAT WINDS THROUGHOUT THE CYTOPLASM. MANUFACTURES
PROTEINS, LIPID COMPONENTS OF MEMBRANE AND MODIFIES PROTEINSPROTEINS, LIPID COMPONENTS OF MEMBRANE AND MODIFIES PROTEINS
FOR SECRETIONFOR SECRETION
 PEROXISOMES, WHICH DISARM DANGEROUS CHEMICAL IN THE CELLS.PEROXISOMES, WHICH DISARM DANGEROUS CHEMICAL IN THE CELLS.
 RIBOSOMES, WHICH ARE TINY, ROUND BODIES THAT BORDER THERIBOSOMES, WHICH ARE TINY, ROUND BODIES THAT BORDER THE
ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM THAT ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR PROTEINENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM THAT ARE RESPONSIBLE FOR PROTEIN
SYNTHESIS.SYNTHESIS.

20. Cell Division/somatic cell division
Mitosis is the division of cell nucleus, which results in the
formation of two daughter nuclei with exactly the same genes as
the mother nucleus. When the nucleus divides, each daughter
cell ends up with exactly the same genetic information as the
original mother and the original fertilized egg from which it
came. The life cycle of a cell extends from the time that the cell
is formed until its division has been completed. Mitosis is only a
small part of the cycle; it lasts only for a few minutes or an hour
or more. Typically, it takes for 2 hours. Mitosis provides the
new cells for body growth in youth and vital to repair body
tissues all through life. Disorganized mitosis is the basis for
tumors and cancers.

21. Stages of Mitosis
 Interphase:Interphase: The chromosomes are in an extended form and
seen as chromatin in the electron microscope and the nucleus
is visible.
Prophase:The chromosomes are seen to consist of two
chromatids joined by a centromere. The centrioles move apart
toward opposite poles of the cell. Spindle fibers are produced
and extend from each centrosome. The nuclear membrane
starts to disappear and the nucleolus is no longer visible.
Metaphase: The chromosomes are lined up at the equator of
the cell. The spindle fibers from each centriole are attached to
the centromeres of the chromosomes and the nuclear
membrane has disappeared.
 Anaphase: During anaphase, sister chromatids of each
chromosomes are separated. Microtubule-based mechanisms
move the two chromatids of each pair to opposite poles.
Telophase: Telophase is essentially prophase in reverse.
Microfilaments begin to constrict at equatorial plane. New
nuclear membranes start forming. The nucleus reappears.
Cell division is nearly complete.

22. Meiosis
Sex cell division
A process the produces four daughter cell with haploid
number of chromosomes as the parent cell
Also called reduction division
Involves two successive divisions-meiosis I and II

23. Integumentary System (Skin)
Human Skin is the largest organ of
the integumentary system made up
of multiple layers of epithelial
tissues that guard underlying
muscles and organs. As the skin
interfaces with the surroundings, it
plays the most important role in
protecting (the body) against
pathogens . Its other main
functions are insulation and
temperature regulation, sensation
and vitamin D and B synthesis.
Skin is considered one of the most
important parts of the body.

24. Layers of the Skin
Epidermis
madeup of stratified squamouslayer of epithelial tissue
10 to 30 cellsthick, about asthick asthispage.
Dermis
made up of fibrous connective tissue containing collagen
and elastic fibers.
also contains muscle fibers, glands, pigment cells, blood
vesselsand sensory nerves.
15 to 40 timesthicker than theepidermis.
provides structural support for all the epidermis and as
matrix for any nerve endings, muscles and specialized
cellsin theskin.

25. Skeletal System
Functions:
1. Support the body.
2. Attachment of muscles.
3. Protection of internal
organs.
4. Act as levers for movement.
5. Production of blood cells.
6. Gives stability and shape to
the body.
Types of Skeleton
Refering to the framework of
the animal body is composed of
cartilage, bone or a combination
of both.

26. Asto kindsof BoneTissue
Spongy bone tissue
* located at the ends and interiors of long bones.
* Also called bone marrow.
* Composed of an open lattice of bone.
* within this lattice framework, RBC are reproduce.
Compact bone tissue
* Surrounds the spongy bone tissue
* Also found at the core of bones
* Gives strength to withstand mechanical stress.

27. Distribution of Bones in Human Adult
there are total of 206 bones in an adult human.
distributed as follows:
skull ( cranium + face ) = 22 ( 8 + 14 )
Ears = 6
hyoid = 1
vertebral column = 26
sternum = 1
ribs = 24
pectoral girdle and forelimbs = 64
pelvic girdle and hindlimbs = 62

28. Common disordersassociated with
theskeletal system
Osteoporosis, bone
condition characterized by
a decrease in mass,
resulting in bones that are
more porous and more
easily fractured than
normal bones.
Scoliosis, also known as
curvature of the spine, a
progressive lateral
curvature of backbone.

29. Digestive System
Functions:
1. Ingestion of food
2. Breaking down of complex
substance ( food ) into simple
forms ( nutrients )
3. Absorption of digested food
4. Egestion of excretion of
undigested food
Types of Digestion as to action:
* Mechanical digestion – food is
converted into small pieces by
physical means such as
mastication by the teeth.
* Chemical digestion – food is
converted into simpler forms
by the action of enzyme

30. Common Digestive diseases and disorders
Peptic ulcersareulcersof thestomach
( gastric ) or small intestine( duodenal )
Appendicitis, an acute inflammation of the
vermiform appendix.
Diarrhea, a frequent passage of abnormally
loose, water stool.
Constipation, difficulty in eliminating bowel
movementsfrom thebody.

31. Circulatory System
1.Transport the oxygen and carbon dioxide,
soluble food materials, organic wastes, and
hormones
2. Regulation of thepH of tissue
3. Protection of the body against invading
microbes
4. Regulation of body temperature in warm-
blooded animals
TheBlood
 A specialized connectivetissue
 Themain transporting medium of thebody
 8% of total body weight (4 to 6 liters in
averageadult)
 Considered to bethe‘essenceof life’

32. Composition of Blood
Plasma - fluid portion of the blood
Formed Elements : include the cells (erythrocytes and
leukocytes) and cell fragments (thrombocytes)
 Erythrocytes or red blood corpuscles (RBC) Small,
biconcave disks with polysaccharides on the outer
membrane
Leukocytes or white blood cells (WBC) less than 1%
of the cells in human blood
Thrombocytes or blood platelets in humans
Involved in blood clotting or coagulation

33. Blood Groups

34. ABO Blood Classification
The most common blood grouping is the ABO
classification
Based on the types of protein present in the blood cells
(antigen A and antigen B) and in the plasma (anti-a and
anti-b)
Agglutination clumping of blood cells. Each blood types
contains the following:
Blood type A contains antigen A and anti-b
Blood type B contains antigen B and anti-a
Blood type AB contains antigen A and B and no
antibodies
Blood type O contains anti-a anti-b and no antigen

35. TheHeart
 main pumping
organ of thebody
 highly muscular
organ located in
the mid-ventral
region of the
thoracic cavity
 enclosed by a
tough connective
tissue, the
pericardium

36. Chambers of the Heart
1. Atria or Auricles –
have thin walls,
receive blood from
the veins and pump
it into theventricle
2. Ventricles – with
much thicker walls,
pump the blood out
of the heart to all
partsof thebody

37. Common Blood-related Disorders
Hypertension or High Blood Pressure, medical
condition in which constricted arterial blood vessels
increasetheresistanceto blood flow.
Thrombosis, formulation of blood clot, or
thrombus, insideablood vessel.
Leukemia, any of several types of cancers that
affectsblood cells.
Arteriosclerosis, agroup of disordersof thearteries.

38. Lymphatic and Immune System
The lymphatic system consists of
transport tubes and lymphoid
organs. The tubes constitute the
lymph vascular system, which
supplements pulmonary and the
systematic circulation. When the
tissue fluid has moved into these
tubes, it is called the lymph. The
lymphoid organs, which take part
in defense responses, are
structurally and functionally
connected with both the blood and
lymph vascular system.

39. Lymphatic Vascular System
The lymph vascular system includes lymph capillaries,
lymph vessels, and ducts that drain the processed fluid
back into the circulation system, it serves these
functions:
Return theexcessfiltered fluid to theblood.
Return of small amounts of proteins that leave the
capillaries.
Transport fatsabsorbed from thedigestivetract.
Transport of foreign particles and cellular debris to
disposal centers(Lymph nodes)

40. Diseases of the Lymphatic System and
Lymphoid Tissue
Lymphangitis is an inflammation of lymphatic vessels
Elephantiasis is the blockage of lymphatic vessels by parasitic
worms
Lymphandenitis is an inflammation of lymph nodes that occurs
during infection
Lymphadenopathy is a disease of lymph nodes
Splenomegaly is the enlargement of the spleen
Hodgkin’s disease is a malignant disease with enlargement of
lymph nodes
Lymphosarcoma is a malignant tumor of lymphoid tissue

41. Respiratory Organs
Direct Surfaces ( skin and
pharyngeal regions ) some
amphibians and fishes like
mudhoppers and eels use
their skin, salamanders use
their pharyngeal regions.
Gills – most aquatic
animals use external and
internal gill filament.
Lungs – terrestrial
animals.

42. Common Diseases Associated with
Respiratory System
Common Colds, acute infectious disease of the upper
respiratory tract, caused by more than 100 kinds of viruses.
Asthma, disorder of the respiratory system in which the
passages that enable air to pass in and out of the lungs
periodically narrow, causing coughing.
Bronchitis, acute or chronic inflammation of any part of the
bronchi and bronchial tubes.
Pneumonia, term applied to any of about 50 distinct
inflammatory to diseases of the lungs characterized by the build
up of fluid in the lungs.
Tuberculosis , chronic or acute bacterial infection that primarily
attacks the lungs but which may also affects the kidneys, bones,
lymph nodes and brain.

43. Excretion
Excretion is the process of throwing waste and
harmful substances from the body. The skin,
lungs, kidneys and lower intestinal tract carry
out this function. The kidneys eliminate most
of the excess water and salt. Perspiration
withdraws from the body about one-fourth
(1/4) of all the heat produced. When a
person breathes, he eliminates carbon dioxide
and some water. An adult eliminates a volume
of about 6 4/5 ounces (200ml) of carbon
dioxide per minute. Many different substances
pass out of the body through the kidneys.
They eliminate daily about 9 liters of urine,
made up of water and certain solids. Urine
contains the solid urea, a waste product of the
used protein by the body.

44. Metabolic Wastes
Functions
1. Collection and elimination of metabolic waste
products.
2. Maintain homeostasis.
Metabolic Wastes
* heat
* carbon dioxide from respiration
* water derived from the oxidation of carbohydrates and
fats.
* bile salts and pigments from the destruction of RBC
* mineral salt from the breakdown of water worn out
tissue from excess dietary intake.
* urea from protein metabolism

45. Common Kidney Disorders
Acute renal failure, which occurs suddenly,
may be caused by bacterial infection, injury,
shock, congestive heart failure, drug poisoning
or severe bleeding following surgery.
Chronic renal failure is a progressive
deterioration of kidney function over a long
period of time.
Urinal calculi, commonly known as kidney
stone, result from the gradual buildup of
crystallized salts minerals in the urine.

46. Nervous System: Control Center
Functions
Coordination and integration of
many activities of the body through
the conduction of impulses from the
receptors to the effectors.
The nervous system has three
overlapping functions: to monitor
changes (stimuli) occurring inside
and outside the body and to
gather information (sensory input);
to process and interpret the sensory
input in order to make decisions
(integration); and to activate the
muscles or glands (motor input).

47. Organization of the Nervous System
Origin
- develops from an embryonic dorsal hollow nerve
cord.
Composition
- brain, spinal cord, nerve cells, neuroglial cells
- consists of vast increase in the number of neurons
compared to invertebrates
Division
- Central Nervous System – includes the brain and
spinal cord.
- Peripheral Nervous System – includes all the nerve
cells outside the CNS, both the cranial nerves and the
nerves.

48. Neurons
Nerve Cells.
For reception of stimuli and transmission of reactions.
Responsible for the integration of impulses
Composition of the brain.

49. Common Diseases Associated with Nervous
System
Multiple Sclerosis ( MS )
Meningitis
Mental illness
Epilepsy
Stroke

50. Endocrine System/Ductless Glands
Functions
 Coordinates, together with the
nervous system, the activities of the
body.
Involved in the synthesis and
secretion of hormones.
Hormonal function includes:
Control of energy production
and utilization
Control of the composition of
extracellular water and
electrolytes
Maintains normal growth and
development

51. Reproductive System
Life begins as a single cell and grows to be an
individual composed of trillions of cells. In that
first cell, every subsequent one is the DNA, the
material that lays down the blueprint of what an
individual will be like from the color of his eyes
to the size of his feet. The reproductive system
functions to ensure the continuity of the species
by producing offspring.

52. Common Sexual Diseases and Dysfunction
Erectile dysfunction ( impotence ) refers to the
ability of a man to have or maintain an erection.
Female orgasmic dysfunction ( anorgasmia or
inhibited female ) refers to the inability of a woman
to have an orgasm.
Vaginismus refers to a spastic contraction of the
outer third of the vagina, a condition that can close
the entrance of the vagina, preventing intercourse.
Breast cancer, malignant tumor in the glandular
tissue of the breast. Such tumors called carcinoma.

53. Infertility, permanent inability to conceived or carry a
child to term.
Sterility, permanent inability to produce offspring.
Gonorrhea, caused by the bacteria Neisseria gonorrhea,
infects the membranes lining certain genital organs.
Syphilis, a potential life threatening STD, is caused by
the bacteria Treponema pallidum.
Genital Herpes is caused by infection with the herpes
simplex virus (HSV )
AIDS, the result of infection with the human
immunodeficiency.
Trichomoniasis, caused by infection with the protozoan,
trichomonas vaginalis causes vaginitis, inflammation of
the vagina causing burning, itching and discomfort.

54. Proper Hygiene

55. Proper Hygiene
Hygiene refers to the practice of cleanliness, but also refers to the
preservation of health. Proper hygiene requires a range of
behaviors that promote cleanliness, health, disease prevention
and the social etiquette of personal hygiene
Proper hygiene requires age- and gender-appropriate tools,
including soap, water and deodorant and oral hygiene items, hair
care tools and cleaners, nail care implements and detergents for
laundering clothes and housecleaning. You might also need
razors, shaving gels or creams and antibacterial liquids for
cleaning hands when on the move. Depending on your individual
needs, proper hygiene might require additional tools, such as
lotions to prevent dry skin or special facial cleansers.

56. Regular Exercise and balanced diet
Regular exercise will keep the
performance of the heart and lungs to
effectively melt away excess calories
and keep your weight in check.
Exercise will even enhance strength of
muscle, boost joint flexibility and boost
endurance, while eating healthily
provides you with the various tools to
attain your primary goal. The primary
purpose of getting both together would
be to enhance your lifestyle or your
quality of life.

57. Wellness
Charles B. Corbin of Arizona State University, defines wellness:
“as a multidimensional state of being describing the existence of
positive health in an individual as exemplified by quality of life and
a sense of well-being.”
Wellness is an active process of becoming aware of and making
choices toward a more successful existence.