6. Role of metaphors in design Implicit metaphors of learning Instructional design theories and models Discussions about what learning is Learning theories
11. “ Black box” metaphor Skinner (1950) introduced behavioural learning theory: “A science of behavior must eventually deal with behavior in its relation to certain manipulable variables .
12. “ Response strenghtening”metaphor 1900-1950 Learning as response strenghtening Teacher gives punishment and rewards, student reacts with teacher defined behaviour Drill, tutorial, assessment test centered learning
13. Principles of behaviourism Pavlov dog ‘ conditioning reflex’ Pavlov provided the basis of behaviourism highlighting the importance of stimulus for learning. Neutral Stimulus (NS) => No Response (NR) NS + Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) => Unconditioned Response (UCR) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) => Conditioned Response (CR)
14. Principles of behavioural learning Skinner box Skinner, 1950: 1. Behavio u r that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective 2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced ("shaping") 3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization") producing secondary conditioning
15. General e ducational i mplications of b ehaviorism Emphasis on behavior : students should be active respondents … … p eople are most likely to learn when they actually have a chance to behave . S tudent learning must be evaluated … … only measurable behavio u r changes can confirm that learning has taken place.
22. Drill programs Find correct! Feedback Trials and error method Punishing system Game elements Phases: drilling and testing knowledge Biology
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24. Behavioural elements in computer games Gaining experience to proceed in levels Gaining points to earn money to buy new weapons Warrock
25. Behavioural elements in computer games Decisions give resourse- or environment points and you can make the environment better. When your health points decrease you can see that the environmental conditions get worse. www.honoloko.com
28. “ Information processing” metaphor 1960-1970 learning as information processing (Mayer,1996). Teacher is transmissing knowledge, students are receivers of knowledge Textbooks and other content management systems.
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30. “ Brain as the computer” metaphor Computer has information inputs and action outputs similarly as we receive signals from the environment with our sensory organs and react with behavours that emerge in response to the outside signals Information is recorded, decoded and processed both inside the computer and the brain, this processing provides the output behaviours. information reaction
36. “ Knowledge construction” metaphor 1980-1990 learning as knowledge construction (Mayer,1996). Student is constructing knowledge on the basis of earlier knowledge in real situations, teacher is guiding the learning process guided inquiry discussions
37. Steven Weinberg “f ree-floating ” metaphor Constructivism has been illustrated by using the “free floating” metaphor that emphasises that the rules to construct individual knowledge as well as the paths of learning are unpredictable in advance. The “free-floating” idea has recently been used in elearning to describe the knowledge- management: “this is the beast that is combining the e-learning practices with the free-floating knowledge created and shared by learning organisations during their activities (Barron, 2000)”
53. “ Negotiations” metaphor Since 1990… The social-constructive learning has been illustrated with the “negotiations” metaphor (Mayer,1996). According to this metaphor knowledge is always built in the dialogue where the actors create shared knowledge of each others’knowledge, that enables shared activity and supports individual knowledge creation.
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56. “ Communities of Practice ” Raub, S. (2002). Communities of Practice: A New Challenge for Human Resources Management , Research and Practice in Human Resource Management, 10(2), 16-35.
66. “ Ubiquitous learning” metaphor Ubiquity is the ability to be present everywhere or at several places at once. The term is derived from Latin ubique which means everywhere . Mobile learning has u biquitous ( "anytime, anywhere“ ) nature . Wikipedia
73. Complexity of thinking operations Teaching paradigm transmissing constructing Situativity Basic skills knowledge Complex skills and intergrated knowledge contextualised decontextualised e-content, drill program or tutorial assesment test Cases and problems shared knoweledge construction and expertise inquiry and decision-making Behavioural learning Cognitive learning Social-constructivist learning conditioning
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88. The systems approach developed out of the 1950s and 1960s focus on language laboratories, teaching machines, programmed instruction, multimedia presentations and the use of the computer in instruction.
89. ADDIE The principal example of Instructional Systems Design is represented by the ADDIE model.
98. Linking learning theories with instructional design Oliver´s framework: The representation emphasises the relationships between the ends of the spectrum in the form of an octahedron: • Individual – Social. • Reflection – Non-reflection. • Information – Experience. The representation is useful in terms of helping to identify learning pathways