Cognitive perspective report

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Cognitive Perspective
Discussants:
Keren Grace A. Natad
Maryfel S. Moreno

Cognitive Perspective in learning
1. Field Theory (Lewin)
2. Insight Learning (Kohler)
3. Information Processing Theory (Miller)
4. Dual Coding Theory ( Paivio)
5. Schema Theory

Cognitive Perspective of Learning
When you see, hear or touch something in
your environment, how does your brain
recognize what you are seeing, hearing or
touching?

This lesson introduces the cognitive
perspective in psychology, including the
difference between sensation and perception.
We'll also discuss the famous Gestalt principles
of perception that you do automatically every
day but didn't necessarily know there were
names for what your brain was doing.

The cognitive perspective in psychology is
an area of the field that studies how people
acquire, perceive, remember and communicate
information. It includes how we respond to
images we see or sounds we hear, how our
minds change these stimuli into meaningful
ideas and how we remember these ideas later.

Introduction to the foundation of the
cognitive perspective.
Sensation

Sensation
is the process of an environmental
stimulus starting the chain of events from one of
our five senses to our brain in order to be
recognized.
In the process of sensation, those signals
haven't been transformed yet into recognizable
ideas. That's where the next step in the process
begins.

Perception
After an electrical and chemical signal has
gone all the way from a sensory neuron to the
brain, perception occurs.
Perception is when your brain transforms
sensory experiences into meaningful ideas that
can be processed and understood.

Automaticity
When your mind does something so often
that it occurs without your conscious thought
process.
We have automaticity for certain well-
practiced motions, like how to walk or even how
to drive after years of practice. We also have
automaticity for sensation and perception.
However, this automaticity can lead to certain
interesting mistakes, as well.

At first glance, your perception of it might
be that you interpret it in one way. However,
when you look at it more closely, you can realize
that there's another way to see the same image.

Gestalt Principles of Organization
Gestalt can be translated as essence, or
sometimes people refer to the Gestalt idea using
the phrase, 'The whole is greater than the sum
of its parts.'

Figure/ground - Probably the most famous of
the Gestalt principles or rules. Refers to the
automatic tendency we have when we see an
image of trying to pick out the most
important figure in the visual field and filter
everything else into the background.
Similarity- when we automatically group
images that are similar with each other. helps
us in our daily lives by making our brains very
efficient in sorting through all of the
individual aspects of our visual field.

• Similarity occurs when objects look similar to one
another. People often perceive them as a group or
pattern.
• Unity occurs because the triangular shapes at the
bottom of the eagle symbol look similar to the
shapes that form the sunburst.

• When similarity occurs, an object can be
emphasised if it is dissimilar to the others. This is
called anomally.
• The figure on the far right becomes a focal point
because it is dissimilar to the other shapes.

Continuation
• Continuation occurs when the eye is compelled to move
through one object and continue to another object.
• Continuation occurs in the example above, because the
viewer's eye will naturally follow a line or curve. The
smooth flowing crossbar of the "H" leads the eye directly to
the maple leaf.

Closure
• Closure occurs when an object is incomplete or a space is
not completely enclosed. If enough of the shape is
indicated, people percieve the whole by filling in the
missing infomation.
• Although the panda above is not complete, enough is
present for the eye to complete the shape. When the
viewer's perception completes a shape, closure occurs.

Proximity
• Proximity occurs when elements are placed close
together. They tend to be perceived as a group.
• The nine squares above are placed without
proximity. They are perceived as separate shapes.

When the squares are given close proximity,
unity occurs. While they continue to be separate
shapes, they are now perceived as one group.

The fifteen figures above form a unified whole
(the shape of a tree) because of their proximity.

Figure
• The word above is clearly perceived as figure with
the surrounding white space ground.
• In this image, the figure and ground relationships change as
the eye perceives the the form of a shade or the silhouette
of a face.

• This image uses complex figure/ground
relationships which change upon perceiving leaves,
water and tree trunk.

Kurt Lewin (Luh-veen)
was considered by some as the father of
modern social psychology due to his act of
breaking new ground in employing scientific
methods and experimentation in the study of
social behavior. His focus on fusing psychology
with the philosophy of science resulted in an
extensive number of empirical studies performed
in the realms of child development, motivation
and social behavior, particularly having to do with
observational studies and experiments on
children’s behavior.

He was one of the first psychologists to
propose that the development of an individual
was the product of the interaction between
inborn predispositions (nature) and life
experiences (nurture). This conception was
presented by Lewin in the form of a
mathematical equation known as Lewin’s
Equation for behavior, stating that behavior is
the function of the person interacting within his
environment or B = f (P,E).

This psychological field is otherwise known as
the life space which comprises the individual and
his psychological or behavioral environment also
known as facts that affect the behavior or thoughts
of the individual at a certain point in time.
Life space is most frequently determined by
the physical and social environment that the
individual finds himself in. It may include places
where he goes, events that occur, feelings about
places and people encountered, what he sees on
TV or reads in books, his imagined thoughts and
goals.

Learning and Memory
Process of forming memories follows a 3-step
model:
• Encoding
• Storage
• Retrieval

• In the 1920s, German psychologist Wolfgang
Kohler was studying the behavior of apes. He
designed some simple experiments that led to
the development of one of the first cognitive
theories of learning, which he called insight
learning.
• Kohler was born on January 21, 1887 in Revel,
Estonia. His family moved to Germany and
settled in Wolfenbuttell when he was six years
old

Definition of Insight Learning
Insight learning is the abrupt realization of
a problem's solution. Insight learning is not the
result of trial and error, responding to an
environmental stimulus, or the result of
observing someone else attempting the
problem. It is a completely cognitive experience
that requires the ability to visualize the problem
and the solution internally - in the mind's eye, so
to speak - before initiating a behavioral
response.

Example of Insight Learning
• Insight learning happens regularly in each of
our lives and all around us. Inventions and
innovations alike are oftentimes the result of
insight learning. We have all experienced the
sensation of insight learning at one time or
another. It is sometimes called a 'eureka' or
'aha' moment. Whatever you call it, insight
learning is often at the root of creative, out of
the box, thinking.

If you are like most people, when you were
a kid you loved a good snow cone. While many
think of snow cones as a summertime treat, kids
don't care what season it is. So, imagine it's
January, you live in Minnesota, and your son
wants a snow cone. Unless you have a snow
cone maker, you're probably telling your son,
'Maybe the next time we go out to eat we'll get
one, okay?'

Kohler's Major Contributions
Kohler attempted to prove that animals
arrive at a solution through insight rather than
trial and error. His first experiments with dogs
and cats involved food being placed on the
other side of a barrier. The dogs and cats went
right towards the food instead of moving away
from the goal to circumvent the barrier like
chimps who were presented with this situation

Kohler used four chimps in his experiments,
Chica, Grande, Konsul, and Sultan.

1st Experiment
Kohler placed bananas outside Sultan's cage
and two bamboo sticks inside his cage. Neither stick
was long enough to reach the bananas so the only
way to reach the bananas was to put the sticks
together. Kohler demonstrated to Sultan the solution
by putting his fingers into the end of one of the sticks
(Hothersall, 1995). However, this did not help Sultan
solve the problem. After some contemplation, Sultan
put the two sticks together and created a stick long
enough to reach the bananas outside his cage

2nd Experiment
Another study involved bananas suspended
from the roof. The chimps first tried to knock them
down by using a stick. Then, the chimps learned to
stack boxes on top of one another to climb up to the
bananas. Kohler described three properties of insight
learning. First, insight-learning is based on the animal
perceiving the solution to the problem. Second,
insight-leaning is not dependent on rewards. Third,
once a problem has been solved, it is easier to solve a
similar problem (Hothersall, 1995).

Information Processing
Theory (Miller)

George A. Miller was born
February 3, 1920, in Charleston,
West Virginia. In 1940 he received
a Bachelor of Arts degree from the
University of Alabama and in 1946
he received his Ph.D. in Psychology
from Harvard University. He taught
at Harvard, Rockefeller, and
Princeton universities. He is
known for his work in cognitive
psychology, particularly
communication and
psycholinguistics.

The information processing theory
is a cognitive approach to understanding
how the human mind transforms sensory
information. The model assumes that
information that comes from the environment is
subject to mental processes beyond a simple
stimulus-response pattern. "Input" from the
environment goes through the cognitive systems
which is then measured by the "output".
Information that is received can take several
paths depending on attention, encoding,
recognition, and storage.

The cognitive revolution in the late 1950's sparked
the emergence of the theory. One major catalyst of
the cognitive revolution was the invention of the
computer.
A consensus model was refined by Atkinson and
Shiffrin that is known as the modal model (1968).
The concept simply encompasses the ideas of
internal processes that were ignored by the
predominate behaviorists. The model creates a basic
structure for experimental research of these
internal processes.

Development
• Over long spans of time individuals process
information with greater efficiency. The model
assumes that through the process of
maturation one develops greater abilities to
attend to stimulus, recognize patterns,
encode, and retrieve information. Over the life
span individuals experience more information,
associations, and ways to categorize the input.

Methods
1. Quantitative methods - include recall or
recognition tasks involving word or number
lists. These tasks involve participants reading
or being read a list of words or numbers that
they will be tested on later.
 Recall task - where the participants will be
asked to write or restate items that they
remember from the original list.

Recognition task- where participants are
shown another list of words or numbers that
include items that were on the original list and
some that were not. The number of items
recalled or recognized would be the quantity
that is measured.

2. Qualitative methods - may be measuring verbal
representations of memory. The development of
word usage to measure mental representations is
quite effective in studying changes in memory. A
young child often uses very few words to describe
a memory or anything for that matter. During
human development researchers can measure
meaningful changes through verbal
representations.

DUAL CODING THEORY (PAIVIO)
Allan Paivio
Ph.D. McGill University
Professor Emeritus at University of Western Ontario
Allan Paivio earned three degrees from McGill
University between 1949 and 1959. Paivio has a Ph.D.
in Psychology, and has spent over forty years in
research on imagery, memory, language, cognition, and
other areas. He has published approximately two
hundred articles and book chapters, and five books. His
last book, Imagery and Text: A Dual Coding Theory of
Reading and Writing, he wrote with Mark Sadoski.

DUAL CODING THEORY
"Dual coding" implies that verbal and non-
verbal systems are alternative internal
representations of events. For example, one
can think of a house by thinking of the word
"house", or by forming a mental image of a
house The verbal and image systems are
connected and related, for one can think of
the mental image of the house and then
describe it in words, or read or listen to words
and then form a mental image.

DUAL CODING THEORY
• Verbal system units are called logogens; these
units contain information that underlie our
use of the word.
• Non-Verbal system units are called imagens.
Imagens contain information that generates
mental images such as natural objects, holistic
parts of objects, and natural grouping of
objects.

The Quintessential of The Dual Coding
Theory
• Analogue Codes are primarily used to
store mental images of objects we've
seen.
• Symbolic Codes are mental images of
words.

The 3 Types of Mental Processing
Based on The Dual Coding Theory
• Representational processing
It occurs when verbal or non-verbal representations are
activated within our minds during the learning process.
• Referential processing
It occurs when our verbal processing systems are
activated by our non-verbal processing systems (this
can also happen the other way around).
• Associative processing
It occurs when we activate images or symbols that are
contained within the verbal or non-verbal processing
systems within our brain.

Applying The Dual Coding Theory
The Dual Coding Theory can be applied in
instructional design by giving instructors an in
depth look at just how the brain acquires new
information. If instructional designers design
lessons that involve the two different types of
coding, they basically increase the likelihood of
learners to retain the information, given that their
mind will store it as a representation of both a
verbal and non-verbal mental image that can be
accessed at a later time.

Sir Frederic Charles Bartlett (1886–1969) was a
British psychologist, the first professor of
experimental psychology at the University of
Cambridge and one of the precursors of
cognitive psychology. The schema theory was
one of the leading cognitivist learning theories
and was introduced by Bartlett in 1932 and
further developed in the ’70s by Richard
Anderson.

• In order to categorize this class of memory
errors, Bartlett suggested that human beings
apparently possess generic knowledge in the
form of unconscious mental structures
(schemata) and that these structures produce
schematized errors in recall when they
interact with incoming information.

Thus, it is through schemata that old
knowledge influences new information. So,
basically, schemata (plural of schema) are
psychological concepts that were proposed as a
form of mental representation for selected
chunks of complex knowledge, which are then
stored in the long-term memory.

The 4 Key Elements of a Schema
• An individual can memorize and use a schema
without even realizing of doing so.
• Once a schema is developed, it tends to be
stable over a long period of time.
• Human mind uses schemata to organize,
retrieve, and encode chunks of important
information.
• Schemata are accumulated over time and
through different experiences.

Schema theory emphasizes on the
importance of generic knowledge that will help the
formation of mental representations. In the
educational process, the task of teachers would be
to help students develop new schemata and
establish connections between them –something
that will eventually improve their memory. Of
course, background information and prior
knowledge are vitally important, as well.Schema
theory can been applied in various areas, such as:
The practical aspect of Schema
Theory

Mathematical problem solving
A research showed that 3rd graders taught
to use schemata to solve mathematical problems
performed better than their peers who were
taught to solve them in four steps (read – plan to
solve – solve – check).

Motor learning
Discrete motor skills are performed in a short
period of time, and involve the use of our senses to
understand what is happening and then of our
bodies to take action. Since most movements are
unique, our ability to perform a movement class is
represented by three things, according to Richard A
Schmidt (1974):
– a generalized motor program that captures the basic
movement form
– a recall schema that provides info about specific
situations and intentions
– a recognition schema that allows us to realize a mistake
we have made

Reading comprehension
Schema theory is often used to assist the
learning of a second language, since it usually
requires reading many texts in the target
language. If we fail to create a sufficient number
of schemata when reading a text, then reading
comprehension and consequently mastering
another language will become difficult.

Cognitive perspective report

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