The urea cycle is the metabolic pathway that transforms nitrogen to urea for excretion from the body. Liver cells play a critical role in disposing of nitrogenous waste by forming urea hrough the action of the urea cycle.
Nitrogenous excretory products are then removed from the body through in the urine.
The urea excreted each day by a healthy adult (about 30 g) accounts for about 90% of the nitrogenous excretory products.
The cycle occurs mainly in the liver.
coordination between different metabolic pathways inside the body is called integration of metabolism. this presentation discuss about how metabolism can be regulated and integrated in liver, muscle and adipose tissue.
Methionine metabolism
Activation of methionine and transmethylation
Conversion of methionine to cysteine
Degradation of cysteine.
Cysteine metabolism
Formation
Metabolic Function
Metabolism Disorders of Sulfur containing amino acid
coordination between different metabolic pathways inside the body is called integration of metabolism. this presentation discuss about how metabolism can be regulated and integrated in liver, muscle and adipose tissue.
Methionine metabolism
Activation of methionine and transmethylation
Conversion of methionine to cysteine
Degradation of cysteine.
Cysteine metabolism
Formation
Metabolic Function
Metabolism Disorders of Sulfur containing amino acid
This presentation includes Biochemistry of protein metabolism.
It deals with Digestion & absorption of protein, transamination, deamination, Nitrogen Metabolism & Meatbolism of Glycine, Aromatic Amino acids, Sulphur containing Amino acid, one carbon metabolism. it also includes cases and questions for self study.
structure of proteins
definition of Digestion
sources of Proteins --> EXOGENEOUS SOURCES 50-100g/day and ENDOGENEOUS SOURCES 30-100g/day
Proteins DEGRADED BY --> HYDROLASES specifically PEPTIDASES(ENDOPEPTIDASES & EXOPEPTIDASES)
1. Gastric Digestion of Proteins
2. Pancreatic Digestion of Proteins
3. Digestion of Proteins by Small Intestine Enzymes
Absorption of Amino ACids by Na+Dependent, Na+ Independent, Meister Cycle or gama-glutamyl cycle
This presentation includes Biochemistry of protein metabolism.
It deals with Digestion & absorption of protein, transamination, deamination, Nitrogen Metabolism & Meatbolism of Glycine, Aromatic Amino acids, Sulphur containing Amino acid, one carbon metabolism. it also includes cases and questions for self study.
structure of proteins
definition of Digestion
sources of Proteins --> EXOGENEOUS SOURCES 50-100g/day and ENDOGENEOUS SOURCES 30-100g/day
Proteins DEGRADED BY --> HYDROLASES specifically PEPTIDASES(ENDOPEPTIDASES & EXOPEPTIDASES)
1. Gastric Digestion of Proteins
2. Pancreatic Digestion of Proteins
3. Digestion of Proteins by Small Intestine Enzymes
Absorption of Amino ACids by Na+Dependent, Na+ Independent, Meister Cycle or gama-glutamyl cycle
In ureotelic organisms, the ammonia deposited in
the mitochondria of hepatocytes is converted to urea in
the urea cycle. This pathway was discovered in 1932 by
Hans Krebs (who later also discovered the citric acid cycle)
and a medical student associate, Kurt Henseleit.
Urea production occurs almost exclusively in the liver
and is the fate of most of the ammonia channeled there.
The urea passes into the bloodstream and thus to the
kidneys and is excreted into the urine. The production
of urea now becomes the focus of our discussion.
designed for undergraduate level teaching of nitrogen metabolism in biochemistry. this is first in the series of three lectures. ideal for MBBS level teaching
Protein metabolism is more appropriately learnt as metabolism of Amino acid. The proteins on degradation(proteolysis) release individual amino acids. The amount of free amino acids distributed throught the body is called Amino acid pool. The amino acids undergo certain common reactions like transamination followed by deamination for the liberation of ammonia. The amino group of amino acids utilized for the formation of urea, which is the end product of protein metabolism
INTRODUCTION TO METABOLISM OF PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS Rabia Khan Baber
Protein are the important tissue builders in body which it can help in the cell structure, functions, hemoglobin formation to carry oxygen, enzyme for metabolic reaction and other functions in the body. Also in supply the nitrogen for the DNA and RNA genetic materials and the energy production. This is because, protein contain long chain of amino acids
Protein metabolism is the process to breakdown foods are used by During protein metabolism, some of the protein will converted into glucose through gluconeogenesis process.
Protein metabolism denotes the various biochemical processes responsible for the synthesis of proteins and amino acids (anabolism), and the breakdown of proteins by catabolism. ... In humans, non-essential amino acids are synthesized from intermediates in major metabolic pathways such as the Citric Acid Cycle.
Under normal dietary intake the majority of the ingested fructose is metabolized by the enterocytes of the small intestine primarily to glucose which is then delivered to the systemic circulation. In addition to glucose, the carbon atoms from dietary fructose are converted, by intestinal enterocytes, into several other metabolites including glycerate, glutamate, glutamine, alanine, ornithine, and citrulline.
However, diets containing large amounts of sucrose, high fructose corn syrup, or fructose alone, overwhelm the ability of the small intestine to metabolize it all and under these conditions a significant amount of fructose is then metabolized by the liver and to a lesser extent by other organs such as skeletal muscle.
The glucuronic acid pathway is a quantitatively minor route of glucose metabolism. Like the pentose phosphate pathway, it provides biosynthetic precursors and inter-converts some less common sugars to ones that can be metabolized.
A vitamin that can dissolve in water. Vitamins are nutrients that the body needs in small amounts to stay healthy and work the way it should. Water-soluble vitamins are carried to the body's tissues but are not stored in the body.
The pentose phosphate pathway (PPP; also called the phosphogluconate pathway and the hexose monophosphate shunt) is a process that breaks down glucose-6-phosphate into NADPH and pentoses (5-carbon sugars) for use in downstream biological processes. There are two distinct phases in the pathway: the oxidative phase and the non-oxidative phase.
Biosynthesis of pyrimidine nucleotides can occur by a de novo pathway or by the reutilization of preformed pyrimidine bases or ribonucleosides (salvage pathway).
The pyrimidine synthesis is a similar process than that of purines. In the de novo synthesis of pyrimidines, the ring is synthesized first and then it is attached to a ribose-phosphate to for a pyrimidine nucleotide.
Free fatty acids also called unesterified (UFA) or nonesterified (NEFA) fatty acids are fatty acids that are in the unesterified state.
In plasma, longer-chain FFA are combined with albumin, and in the cell they are attached to a fatty acid-binding protein.
Shorter-chain fatty acids are more watersoluble and exist as the un-ionized acid or as a fatty acid anion.
By these means, free fatty acids are made accessible as a fuel in other tissues.
Cholesterol is the major sterol in the animal tissues.
Cholesterol is present in tissues and in plasma either as free cholesterol or as a storage form, combined with a long-chain fatty acid as cholesteryl ester.
In plasma, both forms are transported in lipoproteins
removed from tissues by plasma high-density lipoprotein (HDL) and transported to the liver, where it is eliminated from the body either unchanged or after conversion to bile acids in the process known as reverse cholesterol transport
DNA polymerases are a group of enzymes that are used to make copies of DNA templates, essentially used in DNA replication mechanisms. These enzymes make new copies of DNA from existing templates and also function by repairing the synthesized DNA to prevent mutations. DNA polymerase catalyzes the formation of the phosphodiester bond which makes up the backbone of DNA molecules. It uses a magnesium ion in catalytic activity to balance the charge from the phosphate group.
A genetic disease is any disease caused by an abnormality in the genetic makeup of an individual. The genetic abnormality can range from minuscule to major - from a discrete mutation in a single base in the DNA of a single gene to a gross chromosomal abnormality involving the addition or subtraction of an entire chromosome or set of chromosomes. Some people inherit genetic disorders from the parents, while acquired changes or mutations in a preexisting gene or group of genes cause other genetic diseases. Genetic mutations can occur either randomly or due to some environmental exposure.
The electron transport chain is comprised of a series of enzymatic reactions within the inner membrane of the mitochondria, which are cell organelles that release and store energy for all physiological needs.
As electrons are passed through the chain by a series of oxidation-reduction reactions, energy is released, creating a gradient of hydrogen ions, or protons, across the membrane. The proton gradient provides energy to make ATP, which is used in oxidative phosphorylation.
NUTRITIONAL DISORDERS AND PROTEIN ENERGY MALNUTRITIONRabia Khan Baber
Nutritional disorder are diseases that occur when a person's dietary intake does not contain the right amount of nutrients for healthy functioning, or when a person cannot correctly absorb nutrients from food. Nutritional disorders can be caused by undernutrition, over nutrition or an incorrect balance of nutrients.
Nutrition is the study of nutrients in food, how the body uses them, and the relationship between diet, health, and disease.
Nutritionists use ideas from molecular biology, biochemistry, and genetics to understand how nutrients affect the human body.
Nutrition is the study of nutrients in food, how the body uses them, and the relationship between diet, health, and disease.
Nutritionists use ideas from molecular biology, biochemistry, and genetics to understand how nutrients affect the human body.
Definitions
Stages and Phases of Normal Labour
Abnormal Patterns of Labour
Classification of Abnormal Labour/Dystocia
Diagnosis and Management of Abnormal Labour
Definitions
Introduction to classification
All fat soluble vitamins
Biosynthesis
Sources of vitamins
Daily dosage
Biochemical function of vitamins
Deficiencies of vitamin
Sign and symptoms
AMINO ACID METABOLISM DISORDERS Twenty amino acids, including nine that cannot be synthesized in humans and must be obtained through food, are involved in metabolism. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins; some also function as or are synthesized into important molecules in the body such as neurotransmitters, hormones, pigments and oxygen-carrying molecules.
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
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June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
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The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
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• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
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• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
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1. UREA CYCLE AND UREA
CYCLE DISORDERS
PREPARED BY : RABIA KHAN BABER
COURSE TITLE : BIOCHEMISTRY
2. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF CLASS
WHAT IS AMMONIAAND ITS ROLE
UREA CYCLE INTRODUCTION
IMPORTANT ENZYMES OF UREA CYCLE
REACTIONS OF UREA CYCLE
REGULATION OF UREA CYCLE
RELATED DISEASES OF UREA CYCLE
UREA CYCLE DISORDERS AND INHERITANCE
3. NITROGEN EXCRETION FROM AN AA
During fasting, muscle protein is cleaved to amino acids, some of which are
partially oxidized to produce energy. Portions of these amino acids are
converted to alanine and glutamine, which, along with other amino acids are
released into the blood. Glutamine is oxidized by various tissues, including
the gut and kidney, which convert some of its carbons and nitrogen to alanine.
Alanine and other amino acids travel to the liver, where the carbons are
converted to glucose and ketone bodies and the nitrogen is converted to urea,
which is excreted by the kidneys. Several enzymes are important in the
process of interconverting amino acids and in removing nitrogen so that the
carbon skeletons can be utilized. These include transaminases, glutamate
dehydrogenase and deaminases. Because reactions catalyzed by transaminases
and glutamate dehydrogenase are reversible, they can supply amino groups
for the synthesis of non-essential amino acids.
4. Transamination is the major process
for removing nitrogen from amino
acids. transfer of an amino group
from one amino acid to another α-
keto acid by Transaminase
(aminotransferase). The nitrogen from
one amino acid thus appears in
another amino acid.
Because transamination reactions are
reversible they can be used to remove
nitrogen from amino acids or to
transfer nitrogen to α-keto acids to
form amino acids. They participate in
both amino acid degradation and
amino acid synthesis.
5. AMMONIA
Ammonia (NH3) is a metabolite that results predominantly from protein
and amino acid degradation. Ammonia is an extremely toxic base and its
accumulation in the body would quickly be fatal so it is converted to
urea, which is nontoxic, very soluble, and readily excreted by the
kidneys through urine.
6. ROLE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF
AMMONIA
Ammonia does not have a physiologic function. However, it is
important clinically because it is highly toxic to the nervous system.
Because ammonia is being formed constantly from the deamination of
amino acids derived from proteins, it is important that mechanisms exist
to provide for the timely and efficient disposal of this molecule. The
liver is critical for ammonia catabolism because it is the only tissue in
which all elements of the urea cycle, providing for the conversion of
ammonia to urea. Ammonia is also consumed in the synthesis of
nonessential amino acids, and in various facets of intermediary
metabolism.
7. Ammonia in the circulation
originates in a number of different
sites. A diagram showing the
major contributors to ammonia
levels
AMMONIA IN THE CIRCULATION
8. UREA CYCLE
(KREBS–HENSELEIT CYCLE)
The urea cycle is the metabolic pathway that transforms nitrogen to
urea for excretion from the body. Liver cells play a critical role in
disposing of nitrogenous waste by forming urea hrough the action of
the urea cycle.
Nitrogenous excretory products are then removed from the body
through in the urine.
The urea excreted each day by a healthy adult (about 30 g) accounts
for about 90% of the nitrogenous excretory products.
The cycle occurs mainly in the liver.
9. Location of Urea Cycle:
Cytosol and mitochondria of hepatocytes.
Substrates:
NH3 (as derived from oxidative deamination of glutamate); CO2;
aspartate; three ATP.
Products:
Urea; fumarate; H2O.
Purpose of the Urea Cycle:
The urea cycle allows for the excretion of NH4
+ by transforming
ammonia into urea, which is then excreted by the kidneys.
10. IMPORTANT ENZYMES IN UREA CYCLE
Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I: Converts ammonium and bicarbonate
into carbamoyl phosphate. This is the rate-limiting step in the urea cycle.
This reaction requires two ATP and occurs in the mitochondria.
Ornithine transcarbamoylase: Combines ornithine and carbamoyl
phosphate to form citrulline. Located in mitochondria.
Argininosuccinate synthetase: Condenses citrulline with aspartate to form
arginosuccinate. This reaction occurs in the cytosol and requires one ATP.
Argininosuccinate lyase: Splits argininosuccinate into arginine and
fumarate. Occurs in the cytosol.
Arginase: Cleaves arginine into one molecule of urea and ornithine in the
cytosol. The ornithine is then transported back into the mitochondria for
entry back into the cycle.
11. STAGES OF UREA CYCLE
THE MITOCHONDRIAL STAGE
• The first two steps of the urea
cycle occur in the mitochondria
of the cell. First, the enzyme
carbamoyl phosphate synthetase
(CPS) takes ammonia and
bicarbonate, and forms
carbamoyl phosphate with the
use of ATP.
THE CYTOSOLIC STAGE
• Argininosuccinate synthetase
(AS) takes the citrulline formed
in the mitochondrial stage, and
condenses it with aspartate to
form argininosuccinate. This
occurs by the formation of an
intermediate, citrulline-AMP.
13. Step #1; Synthesis of Carbomyl phosphate
Carbamoyl phosphate is synthesized in the first reaction This is the rate-
limiting step in the urea cycle. This reaction requires two ATP and occurs in
the mitochondria.
Enzyme: carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I, which is located in mitochondria
and is activated by N-acetylglutamate.
NH3 + CO2 + 2ATP → carbamoyl phosphate + 2ADP + Pi
Step#2:Synthesis of Citruline
Ornithine reacts with carbamoyl phosphate to form citrulline. Inorganic
phosphate is released.
Enzyme: ornithine transcarbamoylase, which is found in mitochondria. The
product, citrulline, is transported to the cytosol in exchange for cytoplasmic
ornithine.
Carbamoyl phosphate + ornithine → citrulline + Pi
14. Step#3;Synthesis of Argininosuccinate
The third step is catalyzed by an enzyme called argininosuccinate
synthetase, which uses citrulline and ATP to form a citrullyl-AMP
intermediate, which reacts with an amino group from aspartate to produce
argininosuccinate
Enzyme: Argininosuccinate synthetase
Citrulline + ATP + aspartate → argininosuccinate + AMP + PPi
Step#4;Cleavage of Argininosuccinate
Argininosuccinate is cleaved to form arginine and fumarate.
Enzyme: argininosuccinate lyase. This reaction occurs in the cytosol.
Argininosuccinate → arginine + fumarate
15. Step#5; Cleavage of Arginine to Ornithine and Urea
Arginine is cleaved to form urea and regenerate ornithine.
Enzyme: arginase, which is located primarily in the liver and is inhibited
by ornithine.
Urea passes into the blood and is excreted by the kidneys.
Arginine → urea + ornithine
Fate of Ornithine;
Ornithine is transported back into the mitochondrion (in exchange for
citrulline) where it can be used for another round of the cycle.
When the cell requires additional ornithine, it is synthesized from glucose
via glutamate.
16. Regulation of Urea Cycle:
Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I catalyzes the rate-limiting step of the
cycle and is stimulated by N -acetylglutamate.
Although the liver normally has a great capacity for urea synthesis, the
enzymes of the urea cycle are induced if a high-protein diet is consumed
for 4 days or more.
Related Diseases of Urea Cycle:
Hyperammonemia occurs when there is a deficiency in one of more of the
urea cycle enzymes, causing insufficient removal of NH4
+.
Ammonia intoxication leads to CNS deterioration in the form of mental
retardation, seizure, coma, and death.
18. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE UREA CYCLE
The main purpose of the urea cycle is to eliminate toxic ammonia from
the body. About 10 to 20 g of ammonia is removed from the body of a
healthy adult every day. A dysfunctional urea cycle would mean excess
amount of ammonia in the body, which can lead to hyperammonemia
and related diseases. The deficiency of one or more of the key enzymes
catalyzing various reactions in the urea cycle can cause disorders related
to the cycle. Defects in the urea cycle can cause vomiting, coma and
convulsions in new born babies. This is often misdiagnosed as
septicemia and treated with antibiotics in vain. Even 1mm of excess
ammonia can cause severe and irreversible damages.
21. UREA CYCLE DISORDERS (UCD)
A urea cycle disorder (UCD) is an inherited disease that affects how
the body removes the waste that is made from breaking down protein
When a person eats food that contains protein, the body breaks it
down into amino acids and uses only what it needs. It changes the rest
into nitrogen, which must then be removed by the body.
22. CAUSES OF UCD
The liver in a person with urea cycle disorder is missing an enzyme
necessary to convert nitrogen into urea. As a result, ammonia, a highly toxic
substance, builds up in the bloodstream and is not removed from the body.
Untreated, the high amounts of ammonia can cause brain damage, coma and
eventually death.
Urea cycle disorders are genetic. Genes give the body instructions on how
to break down protein. We usually have two copies of each gene, and most
UCD only occur when a person inherits a changed gene from both
parents. The exception is OTC deficiency, which is passed to the baby
through the mother who is most affected.
23. AUTOSOMAL RECESSIVE
INHERITANCE
Autosomal recessive inheritance occurs when each parent carries
one abnormal gene. The disorder only becomes apparent when both
copies of the gene are abnormal.
In order for an individual to have two abnormal copies of a gene, an
abnormal copy of the gene must be inherited from both parents.
Even though both parents are carrying one abnormal gene they are
usually healthy.
25. AUTOSOMAL DOMINANT
INHERITANCE
Autosomal dominant inheritance occurs when the abnormal gene that
is inherited overrides the normal gene in the pair.
Males and females pass on this type of disorder equally. Only one
parent has to have the affected gene to pass it on to the child, who then
has a 50 per cent chance of inheriting the gene and therefore the
disorder.
The same risk applies to each conception, regardless of the outcome
of previous conceptions.
27. Urea cycle disorders are named based on the initials of the missing
enzyme. They are:
OTC – Ornithine transcarbamylase
ASD – Aargininosuccinic acid synthetase (citrullinemia)
AG – Arginase
ALD – Argininosuccinase acid lyase (argininosuccinic aciduria)
CPS – Carbamoyl phosphate synthetase
NAGS – N-acetylglutamate synthetase.
28. SIGN AND SYMPTOMS OF UCD
In children with severe UCD, the symptoms will develop within the
first 24 hours of life. While all of these symptoms may not be present,
usually the baby will become very sleepy and irritable and will have
feeding problems, including poor feeding and vomiting. Seizures,
trouble breathing and coma may appear later.
Symptoms in children with mild or moderate UCD, who do not show
symptoms until early childhood, may include:
Disliking meat or other foods rich in protein
Vomiting, nausea
Mental confusion or hyperactive behavior
Tired often and / or hard to awaken
Coma
32. Ornithine-transcarbamoylase (OTC) deficiency
Biochemical profile: Elevated ornithine and glutamine, decreased citrulline
and arginine, markedly increased urine orotate
Clinical features: In males, recurrent vomiting, irritability, lethargy,
hyperammonemic coma, cerebral edema, spasticity, intellectual disability,
seizures, death
In female carriers, variable manifestations, ranging from growth delay, small
stature, protein aversion, and postpartum hyperammonemia to symptoms as
severe as those in males with the deficiency
N-acetylglutamate synthetase deficiency
Biochemical profile: Similar to OTC deficiency except for normal to low
urine orotate
Clinical features: Similar to OTC deficiency except carriers are
asymptomatic
33. Citrullinemia type I (Argininosuccinic acid synthetase deficiency)
Biochemical profile: High plasma citrulline and glutamine, citrullinuria,
orotic aciduria
Clinical features: Episodic hyperammonemia, growth failure, protein
aversion, lethargy, vomiting, coma, seizures, cerebral edema, developmental
delay
Citrullinemia type II
Biochemical profile: Elevated plasma citrulline, methionine, galactose, and
bilirubin
Clinical features: With neonatal onset, cholestasis resolved by 3 months
With adult onset, enuresis, delayed menarche, sleep reversal, vomiting,
delusions, hallucinations, psychosis, coma
34. Argininosuccinic aciduria (Argininosuccinate lyase deficiency)
Biochemical profile: Elevated plasma citrulline and glutamine, elevated
urine argininosuccinate
Clinical features: Episodic hyperammonemia, hepatic fibrosis, elevated
liver enzymes, hepatomegaly, protein aversion, vomiting, seizures,
intellectual disability, ataxia, lethargy, coma,
Ornithinemia
Biochemical profile: Elevated plasma ornithine and urine ornithine, lysine,
and arginine; low plasma lysine, glutamic acid, and glutamine
Clinical features: Myopia, night blindness, blindness, progressive loss of
peripheral vision, myopathy.
35. TREATMENT
Treatment is a lifelong process that doesn't cure the condition, but it
can effectively manage the symptoms. Frequent blood tests are done to
continue to monitor ammonia levels. Doctors in the areas of pediatrics,
genetics and nutrition will work together to develop the child's
treatment plan.
1. Low protein, high-calorie diet: Protein in the diet is lowered by
avoiding protein-rich foods. Examples of foods that provide calories
without loading the body with protein are fruits, vegetables and
starches.
36. 2. Medications: Some children will need to take medicine to help take
extra ammonia out of the body. Oral medication is given that binds to
ammonia and carries it out in the urine.
3. Amino acid supplements: Depending on the type of UCD, amino
acid supplements such as arginine or citrulline may be added to the diet
to help give the body what it needs to make proteins that are important
for growth and tissue repair, since children with urea cycle disorder can't
make arginine on their own.
4. Liver transplantation: Because the production of urea cycle enzymes
takes place in the liver, a liver transplant can be an effective treatment
for urea cycle disorder.
37. REFERENCES
Text book of medical biochemistry, MN Chatterjee
•Smith, C. M., Marks, A. D., Lieberman, M. A., Marks, D. B., & Marks,
D. B. (2005). Marks’ basic medical biochemistry: A clinical approach.
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
•Lehninger, A. L., Nelson, D. L., & Cox, M. M. (2000). Lehninger
principles of biochemistry. New York: Worth Publishers.