The document discusses site investigation methods for determining appropriate foundation types. It describes various types of shallow and deep foundations. Site investigation involves soil exploration through methods like boreholes, test pits, and geophysical surveys to understand soil properties and water levels. Different sampling techniques are used to collect disturbed and undisturbed soil samples for analysis. Findings are documented in a bore log report making recommendations on foundation design.
This document discusses tunnel failures and tunnel linings. It notes that tunnels can fail due to discontinuities in the surrounding rock/soil, stratified rock layers, stress, minerals, water pressure, seismic effects, and permanent soil displacement. Tunnel linings are needed to prevent collapse in loose rock and soft soils. Common tunnel lining materials include in-situ concrete, rock shotcrete, wire mesh, steel bolts, and pneumatically applied mortar and concrete. Modern tunnels often use precast concrete blocks for their lining in an advance construction method.
This document discusses subsoil exploration, which involves collecting soil data through field and laboratory investigations to assess soil properties at a site. The main objectives are to determine the nature, depth, thickness, and extent of soil strata, as well as groundwater depth and properties. Exploration methods include direct techniques like test pits and borings, and indirect techniques like sounding tests and geophysical methods. Standard penetration tests are commonly used to determine properties of cohesionless soils by counting blows required to penetrate the soil. Corrections are applied to penetration values to account for overburden pressure and sample dilatancy.
This document provides an overview of foundations for building construction. It discusses the importance of foundations in distributing building loads to the ground. There are two main types of foundations - shallow foundations and deep foundations. Shallow foundations include spread footings, grillage foundations, raft foundations, stepped foundations, and mat/slab foundations. Deep foundations transfer loads deep into the earth and include drilled caissons, driven piles, and precast concrete piles. Foundation design considers factors like soil type, structural requirements, construction requirements, site conditions, and cost. The document also discusses waterproofing, drainage, and underpinning foundations.
This document discusses different types of retaining walls, including gravity, cantilevered, counter fort, precast concrete, and sheet pile walls. It describes factors that influence retaining wall design such as soil type, water table height, and subsurface water movement. The key forces that act on retaining walls are also examined: pressure at rest, active earth pressure, and passive earth pressure. Finally, five common modes of retaining wall failure are identified: sliding, overturning, bearing capacity, shallow shear, and deep shear failures.
This document discusses different types of retaining walls, including:
- Gravity walls, pre-cast crib walls, gabion walls, reinforced concrete walls, sheet pile walls, mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls, slurry walls, secant pile walls, soldier piles and lagging walls, cofferdam walls, and hybrid systems.
It provides details on the materials, designs, and uses of various retaining wall types. Common materials include wood, steel, concrete, and soil reinforcements. Walls are chosen based on factors like height, site conditions, costs, and whether they are temporary or permanent.
This document provides an overview of planning, design, and construction considerations for high-rise buildings. It discusses types of building construction and foundations. RCC framed structures are generally used for taller buildings. Planning involves subsoil exploration and determining suitable foundation types. Design considerations include structural analysis and proportioning members. Construction involves formwork, reinforcement, concrete mixing and placing, and curing. The document also outlines electrical, plumbing, fire safety, and air conditioning systems for high-rise buildings.
This document provides an overview of foundations, including:
1. It discusses the different types of soils that compose foundations and their properties.
2. It describes the various types of foundations, including shallow foundations (e.g. footings, slabs) and deep foundations (e.g. piles, caissons).
3. It covers foundation design considerations like loads, strength, stability, drainage, and construction methods.
This document discusses tunnel failures and tunnel linings. It notes that tunnels can fail due to discontinuities in the surrounding rock/soil, stratified rock layers, stress, minerals, water pressure, seismic effects, and permanent soil displacement. Tunnel linings are needed to prevent collapse in loose rock and soft soils. Common tunnel lining materials include in-situ concrete, rock shotcrete, wire mesh, steel bolts, and pneumatically applied mortar and concrete. Modern tunnels often use precast concrete blocks for their lining in an advance construction method.
This document discusses subsoil exploration, which involves collecting soil data through field and laboratory investigations to assess soil properties at a site. The main objectives are to determine the nature, depth, thickness, and extent of soil strata, as well as groundwater depth and properties. Exploration methods include direct techniques like test pits and borings, and indirect techniques like sounding tests and geophysical methods. Standard penetration tests are commonly used to determine properties of cohesionless soils by counting blows required to penetrate the soil. Corrections are applied to penetration values to account for overburden pressure and sample dilatancy.
This document provides an overview of foundations for building construction. It discusses the importance of foundations in distributing building loads to the ground. There are two main types of foundations - shallow foundations and deep foundations. Shallow foundations include spread footings, grillage foundations, raft foundations, stepped foundations, and mat/slab foundations. Deep foundations transfer loads deep into the earth and include drilled caissons, driven piles, and precast concrete piles. Foundation design considers factors like soil type, structural requirements, construction requirements, site conditions, and cost. The document also discusses waterproofing, drainage, and underpinning foundations.
This document discusses different types of retaining walls, including gravity, cantilevered, counter fort, precast concrete, and sheet pile walls. It describes factors that influence retaining wall design such as soil type, water table height, and subsurface water movement. The key forces that act on retaining walls are also examined: pressure at rest, active earth pressure, and passive earth pressure. Finally, five common modes of retaining wall failure are identified: sliding, overturning, bearing capacity, shallow shear, and deep shear failures.
This document discusses different types of retaining walls, including:
- Gravity walls, pre-cast crib walls, gabion walls, reinforced concrete walls, sheet pile walls, mechanically stabilized earth (MSE) walls, slurry walls, secant pile walls, soldier piles and lagging walls, cofferdam walls, and hybrid systems.
It provides details on the materials, designs, and uses of various retaining wall types. Common materials include wood, steel, concrete, and soil reinforcements. Walls are chosen based on factors like height, site conditions, costs, and whether they are temporary or permanent.
This document provides an overview of planning, design, and construction considerations for high-rise buildings. It discusses types of building construction and foundations. RCC framed structures are generally used for taller buildings. Planning involves subsoil exploration and determining suitable foundation types. Design considerations include structural analysis and proportioning members. Construction involves formwork, reinforcement, concrete mixing and placing, and curing. The document also outlines electrical, plumbing, fire safety, and air conditioning systems for high-rise buildings.
This document provides an overview of foundations, including:
1. It discusses the different types of soils that compose foundations and their properties.
2. It describes the various types of foundations, including shallow foundations (e.g. footings, slabs) and deep foundations (e.g. piles, caissons).
3. It covers foundation design considerations like loads, strength, stability, drainage, and construction methods.
The document discusses foundations for structures. It defines a foundation as the lowest artificially prepared part of a structure that is in direct contact with the ground and transmits structural loads to the soil. Foundations are designed to limit uneven settling and distribute loads over a large area within the soil's bearing capacity. Common foundation types include shallow foundations like spread, pad, strip, and raft foundations, as well as deep foundations like piles, caissons, and retaining walls. Factors that influence foundation design include soil conditions, structural loads, and the need to prevent tilting, sliding, or overturning of the structure.
This document provides an overview of a multi-story residential building project constructed by the Rajasthan Housing Board. It discusses the project details, company overview, construction materials used including cement, aggregates, reinforcement, foundation preparation, equipment, brick masonry bonds, plastering, and building bylaws. The presentation covers the construction process and materials in detail to familiarize the trainee with multi-story building construction.
This document summarizes a study on the design of flexible pavements. It includes an abstract that outlines a comparison of total present costs between flexible pavement and jointed plain concrete pavement for two case study roads. The document then lists contents that will be covered, including introduction to flexible pavements and their layers/functions, different flexible pavement design approaches, testing and materials used, construction processes, and a conclusion. It provides an overview of flexible pavement requirements, types, load transfer mechanisms, and common flexible pavement constructions.
This document defines and describes different types of shallow foundations, including spread footings, combined footings, strap footings, grillage foundations, and raft foundations. Spread footings distribute a structure's load over a large area and can be single, stepped, or sloped. Combined footings are used when columns are close together to avoid interference. Strap footings connect independent column footings with a beam. Grillage foundations use layers of steel beams in concrete to distribute loads in poor soil. Raft foundations use a thick concrete slab covering the entire building area for structures on very poor soils.
This document provides information about pile foundations, including:
- Piles transfer structural loads through weak soil layers into stronger soils and rocks below.
- Common types of piles include pre-cast concrete, cast-in-situ concrete (e.g. Raymond, MacArthur), steel, timber, and composite piles.
- Piles are selected based on factors like soil properties, loading conditions, costs, and availability of materials. Proper pile type and design are necessary to safely support structures.
This document discusses different types of excavators used in construction. It describes the history and development of excavators from the late 1700s/early 1800s. It outlines three main types of excavators - crawler excavators, wheel excavators, and shovel excavators. Crawler excavators are used in hilly areas due to their low ground pressure, while wheel excavators are used for plain ground operations. Shovel excavators include power shovel, backhoe, and front shovel excavators. The document provides details on the applications and operation of each type. It also discusses factors that affect shovel excavator production rates, such as bucket size, cycle times, fill factors, and operator efficiency.
This document provides an overview of foundations, including shallow and deep foundations. It discusses various types of shallow foundations such as spread footings and slab on grade. For deep foundations, it describes piles, piers, caissons/wells and different pile types classified by function and material. Pile installation methods like impact and vibratory driving are also summarized. The document provides a high-level view of foundation types and considerations for different soil and loading conditions.
Definition,
functions,
types of foundations,
foundation loads,
selection criteria for foundations based on soil conditions,
bearing capacity of soil,
methods of testing,
method of improving bearing capacity of soil,
settlement of foundations,
precautions against settlement,
shallow and deep foundations,
different types of foundations – wall footing (strip footing), isolated footing, combined footing, raft foundation, pile foundation etc.
Deep foundations are used when the bearing stratum is located at a significant depth below the surface. The most common types of deep foundations are pile foundations, cofferdams, and caisson foundations. Pile foundations support structures using vertical piles that transfer loads either through end bearing or skin friction. Piles can be made of timber, concrete, steel, or a composite. Cofferdams are temporary structures used to exclude water from a construction site to allow work below the water level. Common types include earthfill, rockfill, single-walled, and cellular cofferdams. Caissons are watertight structures that become part of the permanent foundation. Types are open caissons, box caissons
This document discusses load standards and the effective width method for bridge engineering according to the Indian Roads Congress (IRC). It outlines various loads that must be considered in bridge design like dead load, live load, impact load, and wind load. It also describes the IRC's standard load classifications for bridges and provides equations for calculating impact percentage and effective slab width. The effective width method per the IRC is described for slabs spanning in one or two directions and cantilever slabs.
This document provides information on estimating earthwork and excavation quantities for civil engineering projects. It discusses:
- Common types of excavation like soft soil, hard soil, mud, soft rock, and hard rock.
- Methods for calculating excavation volumes based on length, breadth, depth, and classification of materials.
- Considerations for excavating foundations including ensuring vertical sides and level bottoms before pouring concrete.
- Methods for calculating quantities of earthwork for roadworks using cross-sectional areas, prismoidal formulas, and mean heights.
The document provides a training report for a bridge construction project in Jaipur, India during May-June 2016. It summarizes the key components of the bridge, including pile foundations, substructures like piers and pedestals, and superstructures such as prestressed concrete girders and deck slabs. The training helped the author gain practical knowledge of bridge construction techniques and management that supplemented their theoretical classroom learning.
THE PROJECT DESCRIBES THE DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING USING STAAD PRO(COLUMNS&BEAMS) & MANUAL(SLABS,FOOTINGS&STAIRCASE).THE PROJECT ALSO CONTAINS THE ESTIMATION & COSTING.THE AUTO CADD IS HELPFUL FOR DRAWINGS.
Raft foundations are concrete slabs that spread the load of a building evenly over a large area. They are often used when soil conditions are unstable or over 50% of the ground would need strip footings. There are different types including solid slab rafts, slab beam rafts, cellular rafts, piled rafts, and balancing rafts. Raft foundations are cheaper and easier to install than traditional footings and help reduce differential settlement. The main disadvantage is risk of edge erosion if not properly constructed.
The document discusses various types of construction contracts and tendering processes. It defines a tender as an invitation from an owner to contractors to execute work at a specified cost and time. There are different types of tenders including open, sealed, limited, and single tenders. Key aspects of the tendering process include tender forms, documents, notices, evaluation criteria, acceptance procedures, contract documents, deposits, and measurements. Different types of construction contracts are also summarized such as lump-sum, item rate, percentage rate, cost plus, and turn-key contracts.
The document discusses retaining walls and includes:
- Definitions of retaining walls and their parts
- Common types of retaining walls including gravity, semi-gravity, cantilever, counterfort and bulkhead walls
- Earth pressures like active, passive and at rest pressures
- Design principles for stability against sliding, overturning and bearing capacity
- Drainage considerations for retaining walls
- Theories for analyzing earth pressures like Rankine and Coulomb's theories
- Sample design calculations and problems for checking stability of retaining walls
1. SELECTION OF FOUNDATION AND SUBSOIL EXPLORATION/INVESTIGATION (FE) 2180609...VATSAL PATEL
Types of foundation, Factors affecting the selection of type of foundations, steps in choosing types of foundation based on soil condition, Objectives and planning of exploration program, methods of exploration-wash boring and rotary drilling-depth of boring, soil samples and soil samplers-representative and undisturbed sampling, field penetration tests: SPT, SCPT, DCPT. Introduction to geophysical methods,
This document presents a summary of a presentation on analyzing and designing an RCC box culvert using ETABS. The presentation covers the objectives of determining loads, structurally designing the culvert, designing reinforcement, and analyzing the design in ETABS. It describes the culvert's design parameters from its hydraulic design and dimensions. It also details the typical reinforcement in the slab and walls. The conclusion recommends reinforcement sizes and validates the hand calculations with ETABS analysis results.
This document provides information on foundations for buildings. It defines foundations as the lowest part of a structure that transfers loads to the soil. Foundations have several functions, including distributing weight over a large area to prevent overloading the soil. Proper site investigation is important to determine soil properties and suitable foundation type. Investigation methods include test pits, auger borings, and deep borings. Bearing capacity refers to the load a soil can support without excessive settlement. Shallow foundations suitable for stronger soils include strip, raft, and pad foundations. Deep foundations using piles are used for weaker soils.
The document discusses foundations for buildings. It begins by defining what a foundation is and its purposes, which include distributing the load of the structure, preventing differential settlement, and providing stability. It then covers factors that affect foundation design like soil conditions, structural requirements, and cost. The main types of foundations discussed are shallow foundations, which transfer load directly to the soil, and deep foundations, which transfer load deeper using techniques like piles. Construction of foundations involves site preparation, excavation, forming and pouring footings and walls. The document also discusses underpinning existing foundations and protecting foundations from moisture using waterproofing and drainage.
The document discusses foundations for structures. It defines a foundation as the lowest artificially prepared part of a structure that is in direct contact with the ground and transmits structural loads to the soil. Foundations are designed to limit uneven settling and distribute loads over a large area within the soil's bearing capacity. Common foundation types include shallow foundations like spread, pad, strip, and raft foundations, as well as deep foundations like piles, caissons, and retaining walls. Factors that influence foundation design include soil conditions, structural loads, and the need to prevent tilting, sliding, or overturning of the structure.
This document provides an overview of a multi-story residential building project constructed by the Rajasthan Housing Board. It discusses the project details, company overview, construction materials used including cement, aggregates, reinforcement, foundation preparation, equipment, brick masonry bonds, plastering, and building bylaws. The presentation covers the construction process and materials in detail to familiarize the trainee with multi-story building construction.
This document summarizes a study on the design of flexible pavements. It includes an abstract that outlines a comparison of total present costs between flexible pavement and jointed plain concrete pavement for two case study roads. The document then lists contents that will be covered, including introduction to flexible pavements and their layers/functions, different flexible pavement design approaches, testing and materials used, construction processes, and a conclusion. It provides an overview of flexible pavement requirements, types, load transfer mechanisms, and common flexible pavement constructions.
This document defines and describes different types of shallow foundations, including spread footings, combined footings, strap footings, grillage foundations, and raft foundations. Spread footings distribute a structure's load over a large area and can be single, stepped, or sloped. Combined footings are used when columns are close together to avoid interference. Strap footings connect independent column footings with a beam. Grillage foundations use layers of steel beams in concrete to distribute loads in poor soil. Raft foundations use a thick concrete slab covering the entire building area for structures on very poor soils.
This document provides information about pile foundations, including:
- Piles transfer structural loads through weak soil layers into stronger soils and rocks below.
- Common types of piles include pre-cast concrete, cast-in-situ concrete (e.g. Raymond, MacArthur), steel, timber, and composite piles.
- Piles are selected based on factors like soil properties, loading conditions, costs, and availability of materials. Proper pile type and design are necessary to safely support structures.
This document discusses different types of excavators used in construction. It describes the history and development of excavators from the late 1700s/early 1800s. It outlines three main types of excavators - crawler excavators, wheel excavators, and shovel excavators. Crawler excavators are used in hilly areas due to their low ground pressure, while wheel excavators are used for plain ground operations. Shovel excavators include power shovel, backhoe, and front shovel excavators. The document provides details on the applications and operation of each type. It also discusses factors that affect shovel excavator production rates, such as bucket size, cycle times, fill factors, and operator efficiency.
This document provides an overview of foundations, including shallow and deep foundations. It discusses various types of shallow foundations such as spread footings and slab on grade. For deep foundations, it describes piles, piers, caissons/wells and different pile types classified by function and material. Pile installation methods like impact and vibratory driving are also summarized. The document provides a high-level view of foundation types and considerations for different soil and loading conditions.
Definition,
functions,
types of foundations,
foundation loads,
selection criteria for foundations based on soil conditions,
bearing capacity of soil,
methods of testing,
method of improving bearing capacity of soil,
settlement of foundations,
precautions against settlement,
shallow and deep foundations,
different types of foundations – wall footing (strip footing), isolated footing, combined footing, raft foundation, pile foundation etc.
Deep foundations are used when the bearing stratum is located at a significant depth below the surface. The most common types of deep foundations are pile foundations, cofferdams, and caisson foundations. Pile foundations support structures using vertical piles that transfer loads either through end bearing or skin friction. Piles can be made of timber, concrete, steel, or a composite. Cofferdams are temporary structures used to exclude water from a construction site to allow work below the water level. Common types include earthfill, rockfill, single-walled, and cellular cofferdams. Caissons are watertight structures that become part of the permanent foundation. Types are open caissons, box caissons
This document discusses load standards and the effective width method for bridge engineering according to the Indian Roads Congress (IRC). It outlines various loads that must be considered in bridge design like dead load, live load, impact load, and wind load. It also describes the IRC's standard load classifications for bridges and provides equations for calculating impact percentage and effective slab width. The effective width method per the IRC is described for slabs spanning in one or two directions and cantilever slabs.
This document provides information on estimating earthwork and excavation quantities for civil engineering projects. It discusses:
- Common types of excavation like soft soil, hard soil, mud, soft rock, and hard rock.
- Methods for calculating excavation volumes based on length, breadth, depth, and classification of materials.
- Considerations for excavating foundations including ensuring vertical sides and level bottoms before pouring concrete.
- Methods for calculating quantities of earthwork for roadworks using cross-sectional areas, prismoidal formulas, and mean heights.
The document provides a training report for a bridge construction project in Jaipur, India during May-June 2016. It summarizes the key components of the bridge, including pile foundations, substructures like piers and pedestals, and superstructures such as prestressed concrete girders and deck slabs. The training helped the author gain practical knowledge of bridge construction techniques and management that supplemented their theoretical classroom learning.
THE PROJECT DESCRIBES THE DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF A BUILDING USING STAAD PRO(COLUMNS&BEAMS) & MANUAL(SLABS,FOOTINGS&STAIRCASE).THE PROJECT ALSO CONTAINS THE ESTIMATION & COSTING.THE AUTO CADD IS HELPFUL FOR DRAWINGS.
Raft foundations are concrete slabs that spread the load of a building evenly over a large area. They are often used when soil conditions are unstable or over 50% of the ground would need strip footings. There are different types including solid slab rafts, slab beam rafts, cellular rafts, piled rafts, and balancing rafts. Raft foundations are cheaper and easier to install than traditional footings and help reduce differential settlement. The main disadvantage is risk of edge erosion if not properly constructed.
The document discusses various types of construction contracts and tendering processes. It defines a tender as an invitation from an owner to contractors to execute work at a specified cost and time. There are different types of tenders including open, sealed, limited, and single tenders. Key aspects of the tendering process include tender forms, documents, notices, evaluation criteria, acceptance procedures, contract documents, deposits, and measurements. Different types of construction contracts are also summarized such as lump-sum, item rate, percentage rate, cost plus, and turn-key contracts.
The document discusses retaining walls and includes:
- Definitions of retaining walls and their parts
- Common types of retaining walls including gravity, semi-gravity, cantilever, counterfort and bulkhead walls
- Earth pressures like active, passive and at rest pressures
- Design principles for stability against sliding, overturning and bearing capacity
- Drainage considerations for retaining walls
- Theories for analyzing earth pressures like Rankine and Coulomb's theories
- Sample design calculations and problems for checking stability of retaining walls
1. SELECTION OF FOUNDATION AND SUBSOIL EXPLORATION/INVESTIGATION (FE) 2180609...VATSAL PATEL
Types of foundation, Factors affecting the selection of type of foundations, steps in choosing types of foundation based on soil condition, Objectives and planning of exploration program, methods of exploration-wash boring and rotary drilling-depth of boring, soil samples and soil samplers-representative and undisturbed sampling, field penetration tests: SPT, SCPT, DCPT. Introduction to geophysical methods,
This document presents a summary of a presentation on analyzing and designing an RCC box culvert using ETABS. The presentation covers the objectives of determining loads, structurally designing the culvert, designing reinforcement, and analyzing the design in ETABS. It describes the culvert's design parameters from its hydraulic design and dimensions. It also details the typical reinforcement in the slab and walls. The conclusion recommends reinforcement sizes and validates the hand calculations with ETABS analysis results.
This document provides information on foundations for buildings. It defines foundations as the lowest part of a structure that transfers loads to the soil. Foundations have several functions, including distributing weight over a large area to prevent overloading the soil. Proper site investigation is important to determine soil properties and suitable foundation type. Investigation methods include test pits, auger borings, and deep borings. Bearing capacity refers to the load a soil can support without excessive settlement. Shallow foundations suitable for stronger soils include strip, raft, and pad foundations. Deep foundations using piles are used for weaker soils.
The document discusses foundations for buildings. It begins by defining what a foundation is and its purposes, which include distributing the load of the structure, preventing differential settlement, and providing stability. It then covers factors that affect foundation design like soil conditions, structural requirements, and cost. The main types of foundations discussed are shallow foundations, which transfer load directly to the soil, and deep foundations, which transfer load deeper using techniques like piles. Construction of foundations involves site preparation, excavation, forming and pouring footings and walls. The document also discusses underpinning existing foundations and protecting foundations from moisture using waterproofing and drainage.
This document discusses pile foundations. It classifies piles based on material (steel, concrete, timber, composite), load transfer mechanism (end bearing, friction, combined), and installation method (driven, cast in situ, bored). It describes how end bearing piles transfer load directly to bedrock, friction piles transfer load through skin friction, and combined piles use both mechanisms. The document also discusses functions of pile foundations in transmitting structural loads to firm soil layers and controlling settlement.
This document provides an overview of building substructures and foundations. It discusses the main types of shallow foundations, which are suitable for smaller buildings, including pad footings, strip footings, and raft foundations. It also discusses deep foundations, which are required for larger buildings or where soil conditions require foundations to be placed deeper, such as pile foundations. The key functions of foundations are to distribute structural loads over a large soil area, transmit loads uniformly, and provide a stable base for the building. Foundation type selection depends on factors like building loads, soil type, and cost.
Exploring the Benefits of Deep FoundationsPilingExperts1
Discover the countless advantages of deep foundations with our comprehensive and informative webpage. Gain valuable insights and make informed decisions for your next construction project.
This document discusses foundations for structures. It defines a foundation as the low artificially built part of a structure that transmits loads to the ground. Foundations come in two main types: shallow foundations, which are used when soil can support loads within 1.5m of the surface, and deep foundations, which are required when soil cannot support loads near the surface. Shallow foundations include isolated footings, combined footings, raft foundations, and strip footings. Deep foundations include pile foundations, which use long structural members driven or bored into the ground to transfer loads to stronger deeper soils. The document discusses classifications and functions of different foundation types.
The document provides information on the basics of civil engineering foundations. It discusses the objectives and types of foundations, including shallow foundations like isolated and combined footings, and deep foundations such as pile and pier foundations. Pile foundations can be friction piles or load bearing piles. Factors that determine the size and bearing capacity of foundations are also covered. The document contains diagrams to illustrate foundation components and construction methods.
Hi everyone thanks for you to see our report again, and our report contains every single information about deep foundation just like advantages and disadvantages and types and here again just like the shallow foundation report we compared both with each other.
And from this link you read about shallow foundation
https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/AliRizgar/shallow-foundation-full-information
And from this email you can ask any thing to us
Alirizgar234@gmail.com
Foundations are an essential part of building construction that distribute the weight of the structure to the ground. There are two main types of foundations - shallow foundations, which transfer loads directly to soil near the surface, and deep foundations, which transfer loads to deeper, stronger soil layers. Shallow foundations include spread footings, mat slabs, raft slabs, and grillages. Deep foundations include driven piles, drilled shafts, and caissons. The type of foundation used depends on factors like the building design, soil conditions, and cost. Foundation construction involves site preparation, layout, excavation, forming, reinforcement, and concrete placement.
Rock mechanics for engineering geology (part 2)Jyoti Khatiwada
This document discusses deep foundations and provides definitions and examples of different types of deep foundations, including pile foundations, well foundations, and caisson foundations. It describes when deep foundations are used, such as when suitable bearing capacity is not available near the ground surface or space is restricted. It also summarizes the key types of piles based on function and material, including end bearing piles, skin friction piles, driven piles, and auger cast piles. Well foundations and caisson foundations are also briefly defined.
This document provides an overview of foundations and their design considerations. It discusses the key functions of foundations as transmitting loads to the soil below a structure. Foundations can be either shallow, such as isolated or combined footings, or deep such as pile or well foundations. Design is influenced by soil type, groundwater, and structural requirements. Pile foundations transmit loads through end bearing and friction, and can be made of materials like concrete, timber, steel, or composites.
The document summarizes the construction technology of Madge Mansions, a luxury condominium development in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. It consists of 3 blocks of 10 stories with 52 units total, including 6 penthouses. The development uses pile foundations to support the building due to weak soil conditions. Suspended slabs are used for the ground level and upper levels, and a flat roof covers the top.
The document summarizes the construction technology of Madge Mansions, a luxury condominium development in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. It consists of 3 blocks of 10 stories with 52 units total, including 6 penthouses. Pile foundations were used to support the building due to weak surface soils. Suspended slabs were utilized for the ground level and upper levels to distribute loads. A flat roof was also employed.
The document summarizes the construction technology of Madge Mansions, a luxury condominium development in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. It consists of 3 blocks of 10 stories with 52 units total, including 6 penthouses. Pile foundations were used to support the building due to weak surface soils. Suspended slabs were utilized for the ground level and upper levels to distribute loads. A flat roof was also employed.
The document discusses the construction of Madge Mansions, a luxury condominium development consisting of 3 blocks of 10 stories with 52 units total. It describes the pile foundation, suspended slab flooring, and flat roof used for the building. The foundation uses piles to transfer the heavy building loads to deeper, stronger soil layers. Suspended slabs are used for the floors to support loads between levels. A flat roof design is employed.
Types of foundation...Sana Po May Matutunan tayo !Ricko Guerrero
This document discusses different types of foundations for buildings. It describes shallow foundations including spread foundations and mat/raft foundations. It also describes deep pile foundations that extend below the surface. Specific foundation types are defined, such as spread footings, pad foundations, and different types of piles. Factors that determine the appropriate foundation type include soil conditions, structural loads, cost, and durability. Methods for installing pile foundations include driven piles, cast-in-place piles, and helical piles.
This document discusses different types of foundations for buildings. It describes shallow foundations including spread foundations and mat/raft foundations. It also describes deep pile foundations that extend below the surface. Specific foundation types are defined, such as spread footings, pad foundations, and different types of piles. Factors that determine the appropriate foundation type include soil conditions, structural loads, cost, and durability. Methods for installing pile foundations include driven piles, cast-in-place piles, and helical piles.
This document discusses geotechnical aspects related to building foundations. It covers topics like geotechnical surveys, investigation objectives and stages. It describes different field and laboratory tests done during investigation. The document discusses classification of foundations, design procedures, planning considerations like footing depth and effects of groundwater. It also covers shallow foundations like isolated, combined, spread and raft footings and deep foundations like pile and pier foundations.
There are several types of deep foundations that can be used depending on the soil conditions and load requirements. These include basement foundations, buoyancy raft or hollow box foundations, well/caisson foundations, pier foundations, drilled shaft foundations, and pile foundations. Each type has advantages and disadvantages related to cost, construction difficulty, and suitability for different soil and loading conditions. Common examples of deep foundations used include caissons for bridge piers, drilled shafts for structures with large axial and lateral loads, and piles beneath structures with high groundwater or compressible soils. The type of deep foundation selected depends on the project needs and subsurface environment.
The document discusses the slab used in Madge Mansion, a luxury condominium development. It describes the functions of slabs as providing a flat surface, supporting loads, and acting as insulation and dividers between units. There are two main types of slabs used - precast concrete slabs and in-situ concrete slabs. Precast slabs offer advantages like higher quality control during production and faster construction. In-situ slabs are constructed on site with reinforced concrete spanning between supporting members. The development uses suspended slabs to support loads on the ground level and upper levels.
Similar to Types of Foundation and Site Investigation.pdf (20)
Supermarket Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
Supermarket management is a stand-alone J2EE using Eclipse Juno program.
This project contains all the necessary required information about maintaining
the supermarket billing system.
The core idea of this project to minimize the paper work and centralize the
data. Here all the communication is taken in secure manner. That is, in this
application the information will be stored in client itself. For further security the
data base is stored in the back-end oracle and so no intruders can access it.
Blood finder application project report (1).pdfKamal Acharya
Blood Finder is an emergency time app where a user can search for the blood banks as
well as the registered blood donors around Mumbai. This application also provide an
opportunity for the user of this application to become a registered donor for this user have
to enroll for the donor request from the application itself. If the admin wish to make user
a registered donor, with some of the formalities with the organization it can be done.
Specialization of this application is that the user will not have to register on sign-in for
searching the blood banks and blood donors it can be just done by installing the
application to the mobile.
The purpose of making this application is to save the user’s time for searching blood of
needed blood group during the time of the emergency.
This is an android application developed in Java and XML with the connectivity of
SQLite database. This application will provide most of basic functionality required for an
emergency time application. All the details of Blood banks and Blood donors are stored
in the database i.e. SQLite.
This application allowed the user to get all the information regarding blood banks and
blood donors such as Name, Number, Address, Blood Group, rather than searching it on
the different websites and wasting the precious time. This application is effective and
user friendly.
Applications of artificial Intelligence in Mechanical Engineering.pdfAtif Razi
Historically, mechanical engineering has relied heavily on human expertise and empirical methods to solve complex problems. With the introduction of computer-aided design (CAD) and finite element analysis (FEA), the field took its first steps towards digitization. These tools allowed engineers to simulate and analyze mechanical systems with greater accuracy and efficiency. However, the sheer volume of data generated by modern engineering systems and the increasing complexity of these systems have necessitated more advanced analytical tools, paving the way for AI.
AI offers the capability to process vast amounts of data, identify patterns, and make predictions with a level of speed and accuracy unattainable by traditional methods. This has profound implications for mechanical engineering, enabling more efficient design processes, predictive maintenance strategies, and optimized manufacturing operations. AI-driven tools can learn from historical data, adapt to new information, and continuously improve their performance, making them invaluable in tackling the multifaceted challenges of modern mechanical engineering.
Generative AI Use cases applications solutions and implementation.pdfmahaffeycheryld
Generative AI solutions encompass a range of capabilities from content creation to complex problem-solving across industries. Implementing generative AI involves identifying specific business needs, developing tailored AI models using techniques like GANs and VAEs, and integrating these models into existing workflows. Data quality and continuous model refinement are crucial for effective implementation. Businesses must also consider ethical implications and ensure transparency in AI decision-making. Generative AI's implementation aims to enhance efficiency, creativity, and innovation by leveraging autonomous generation and sophisticated learning algorithms to meet diverse business challenges.
https://www.leewayhertz.com/generative-ai-use-cases-and-applications/
Build the Next Generation of Apps with the Einstein 1 Platform.
Rejoignez Philippe Ozil pour une session de workshops qui vous guidera à travers les détails de la plateforme Einstein 1, l'importance des données pour la création d'applications d'intelligence artificielle et les différents outils et technologies que Salesforce propose pour vous apporter tous les bénéfices de l'IA.
DEEP LEARNING FOR SMART GRID INTRUSION DETECTION: A HYBRID CNN-LSTM-BASED MODELijaia
As digital technology becomes more deeply embedded in power systems, protecting the communication
networks of Smart Grids (SG) has emerged as a critical concern. Distributed Network Protocol 3 (DNP3)
represents a multi-tiered application layer protocol extensively utilized in Supervisory Control and Data
Acquisition (SCADA)-based smart grids to facilitate real-time data gathering and control functionalities.
Robust Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS) are necessary for early threat detection and mitigation because
of the interconnection of these networks, which makes them vulnerable to a variety of cyberattacks. To
solve this issue, this paper develops a hybrid Deep Learning (DL) model specifically designed for intrusion
detection in smart grids. The proposed approach is a combination of the Convolutional Neural Network
(CNN) and the Long-Short-Term Memory algorithms (LSTM). We employed a recent intrusion detection
dataset (DNP3), which focuses on unauthorized commands and Denial of Service (DoS) cyberattacks, to
train and test our model. The results of our experiments show that our CNN-LSTM method is much better
at finding smart grid intrusions than other deep learning algorithms used for classification. In addition,
our proposed approach improves accuracy, precision, recall, and F1 score, achieving a high detection
accuracy rate of 99.50%.
1. SITE INVESTIGATION AND TYPES OF
FOUNDATION
Prepared by
Dr. V. VIGNESH
Assistant Professor
Sanjivani College of Engineering, Kopargaon
2. Content
• Types of Shallow Foundations
• Soil Investigation or Exploration
• Types of Borings
• Spacing of Boring
• Types of Soil Samples
• Types of sampler
• Geophysical Exploration
3. DEFINITION
Foundation is the lower portion of the building, usually located below the
ground level, which transmits the load of the super-structure to the sub- soil.
Types of foundations:-
Shallow foundation
Deep foundation
SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Shallow foundations are further classified into the following types:
Spread footing
Combined footing
Strap footing
Grillage foundations
Raft foundations
4. SPREAD FOOTING
The footing whose base is extended or spread to distribute the load of the
structure over a large area of sub-soil is called spread footing.
Types:-
Single footing:- Suitable for light loaded column.
Stepped footing:- For Heavily loaded column if single footing is provided, the
footing may fail or crack in the cantilever portion hence to avoid this
It is used in load
stepped footing is provided.
bearing structures.
Slopped footing
6. COMBINED FOOTING
Sometimes two columns are located very near to each other in a structure. If
separate footing under these columns are provided, they may interfere with
other. Therefore, providing a combined footing, is essential.
Types:-
Rectangular:- when columns carry equal load
Trapezoidal:- when columns carry unequal load
7. STRAP FOOTING
If the independent footing of two columns are connected by a beam, is called a
strap footing.
It may be used where the distance between the columns is so great.
Each column is provided with its independent footings & a beam is used to
connect the two footing.
8. GRILLAGE FOUNDATION
It is a special type of isolated footing generally provided for these locations
where bearing capacity of soil is poor.
The depth of such a foundation is limited to 1 to 1.5 m.
The load of the column is distributed or spread to a very large area by means
of two or more layers of rolled steel joists, each layer being laid at right angle
to the layer bellow it.
Both the tiers of the joists are then embedded in cement concrete to keep the
joists in position and to prevent their corrosion.
9. TYPES
Depending upon the material used in construction, grillage foundations are
further classified into two types.
Steel Grillage Foundation
Timber Grillage Foundation
Steel grillage foundations are useful for structures like columns, piers, stanchions
subjected to heavy concentrated loads and hence are employed for foundations
of the buildings such as theatres, factories, town, halls etc.
Timber grillage foundations re usually provided for timber columns subjected to
heavy concentrated loads.
Timber grillage foundation can also be safely used for light buildings where the
soil encountered is soft and is permanently water-logged.
10. RAFT OR MAT FOUNDATION
The foundation consisting of a thick R.C.C slab covering the whole area of a
mat is known as raft foundation.
11. SUITABILITY
This type of foundation is useful for public buildings, office buildings, school
buildings, residential quarters etc, where the ground conditions are very poor and
bearing power of the soil is so low that individual spread footing cannot be
provided.
13. Factors affecting the selection of type of foundations
There are certain factors that should be considered during the selecting
the foundation.
1.Type of structure
2.Type of loading pattern
3.Location of the building (region of building)
4.Soil condition
5.Water table level
6.Types of material that will used in construction
7.Lifespan of structure
14. Choosing the right foundation type based on soil condition is a
critical step in the construction process and can significantly impact
the safety and longevity of the structure. It's essential to rely on the
expertise of geotechnical and structural engineers to make informed
decisions throughout this process.
15. STEPS IN CHOOSING TYPES OF FOUNDATION BASED ON
SOIL CONDITION:
Choosing the right type of foundation for a building based on the soil
condition is crucial for ensuring the structural integrity and stability of
the structure. Here are the steps to follow:
1. **Soil Investigation:**
- Start by conducting a thorough soil investigation. This typically
involves hiring a geotechnical engineer or soil expert to assess the
soil's composition, bearing capacity, and other relevant properties.
- Soil tests may include boring, sampling, and laboratory testing to
determine soil types, moisture content, compaction, and load-bearing
capacity.
2. **Soil Classification:**
- Based on the results of the soil investigation, classify the soil into
categories such as clay, silt, sand, gravel, or a combination thereof.
- Determine the soil's properties, such as its cohesion, angle of
internal friction, and bearing capacity.
16. 3. **Load Analysis:**
- Calculate the loads that the foundation will need to
support, including the weight of the building, live loads, and
any additional loads such as equipment or snow loads.
- Consider both vertical and horizontal loads.
4. **Foundation Types:**
- Select potential foundation types that are suitable for
the soil condition. Common types include:
• Shallow Foundations: Suitable for soils with good bearing
capacity.
• Spread Footings: Used for evenly distributed loads.
• Mat Foundations: Suitable for soft soils or heavy loads.
• Deep Foundations: Used when the soil near the surface is
not suitable for bearing the loads.
• Piles: Driven into the ground to transfer loads to deeper,
more stable soil or bedrock.
• Caissons: Large-diameter, drilled shafts used in similar
situations as piles.
17. 5. **Bearing Capacity Calculation:**
- Calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of the selected foundation
types to ensure they can support the expected loads.
- Ensure that the calculated bearing capacity exceeds the design
loads with an appropriate factor of safety.
6. **Consider Settlement:**
- Evaluate potential settlement issues based on the soil's
compressibility. Soils with high compressibility may require
special foundation designs or ground improvement
techniques.
7. **Consider Environmental Factors:**
- Consider any environmental factors that may affect the
foundation, such as groundwater levels, soil expansion or
shrinkage due to moisture changes, and seismic activity.
8. **Consultation with Structural Engineer:**
- Work closely with a structural engineer who can help you
make informed decisions based on the soil investigation, load
analysis, and other relevant data.
18. 9. **Foundation Design and Detailing:**
- Once you've chosen the appropriate foundation type, work with
an engineer to design the foundation with the necessary dimensions,
reinforcement, and construction details.
10. **Construction and Inspection:**
- Ensure that the foundation is constructed according to the design
specifications.
- Regularly inspect the construction to ensure quality and
compliance with the design.
11. **Monitoring and Maintenance:**
- After construction, monitor the foundation's performance and
address any settlement or stability issues promptly.
- Implement a maintenance plan to ensure the foundation's long-
term integrity.
12. **Documentation:**
- Keep comprehensive records of the soil investigation, design
calculations, construction process, and any modifications made
during the construction phase.
19. SITE INVESTIGATION OR SITE
EXPLORATION
• Site Investigation is the process of collecting information, assessment of the data
and reporting potential hazards beneath a site which are unknown.
• Site investigation can be broadly classified into four stages:
• Reconnaissance
• Data and map study
• Detailed investigation and
• Laboratory testing.
20. Purpose of Site Investigation
1. To select the type of foundation and depth of foundation.
2. To determine the bearing capacity of the soil.
3. To locate the ground water table.
4. To select suitable construction techniques.
5. To estimate the probable maximum and differential settlement.
6. To investigate the safety of existing strutures and to suggest the remedial
measures.
7. To ascertain the suitability of base of soil as a construction material.
21. Methods of Exploration
1. Open Excavation
a) Pits and Trenches (Long shallow pits)
b) Drifts and Shafts
Horrizontal tunnels Large vertical holes
2. Borings
a) Auger boring
b) Wash boring
c) Rotary drilling
d) Percussion drilling
e) Core boring
25. Percussion Drilling
Percussion drilling is a drilling method which involves lifting and dropping heavy
tools to break rock, and uses steel casing tubes to stop the borehole from
collapsing. Percussion drilling is carried out by breaking up the formation by
repeated blows of a heavy bit or a chisel inside a casing pipe.
26.
27. • Core drilling is the process of drilling below the earth's surface to obtain a
core of soil or rock sample in order to determine its properties.
• The core boring operation is the insertion of this cutting circle into the
material that is being drilled with a power drill or other means of pushing
this cutting bit into the material.
Core boring
29. 1. For a compact building site covering an area of about 0.4 hectare (i.e. 4000
m2), one bore hole in each corner and one in the centre (i.e. 5 boreholes in all)
should be adequate.
2. For smaller areas and less important buildings even one bore hole in the
centre should be sufficient.
3. For very large areas covering industrial and residential colonies, the
geological nature of the terrain will help in deciding the number of bore holes.
Dynamic or static cone penetration tests may be performed at every 100
metre by dividing the area in a grid pattern and numbers of boreholes are
decided by examining the variation in the penetration curves.
4. For Highways-Along the centerline-150 to 300m spacing
5. In case of Gravity dam – 40 to 80 m.
30. TYPES OF SOIL SAMPLE
Basically, in civil engineering, there are two main types of soil sample that is
collected for the study of the properties of soils:
• Disturbed Soil Samples
• Undisturbed Soil Samples
Disturbed Soil Samples
During the sampling process of the soil sample If the natural structure of the soil
gets disturbed, then this type of soil sample is called a Disturbed Soil Sample.
The Disturbed Soil Samples can be used for the determination of the grain size,
plasticity characteristics, and specific gravity of the soil.
The collection of disturbed soil samples is done by different methods such as
Auger Boring, Wash Boring, Rotary Drilling, and Percussion Drilling, even if the
disturbed soil sample is collected by hand excavating of soil with picks and
shovels.
31. Undisturbed soil sample:
During the sampling process of the soil sample, if the natural structure of
the soil and water content does not disturb, that means the soil retained its
natural structure and water content, then these types of soil samples are called
undisturbed soil samples.
The undisturbed soil samples are used for the determination of engineering
properties of soils such as shear strength, permeability, and compressibility.
33. Design Factors Affecting Sample Disturbance
The disturbance of soil depends mainly depends upon the following
design features:
1.Area Ratio
2.Inside Clearance
3.Outside Clearance
Area Ratio(Ar):
• It is ratio of the volume of the soil displaced by the sampler to
the ratio of the sample volume.
• The larger the value, the larger is the degree of disturbance.
• For obtaining a good quality undisturbed soil sample, the area
ratio should be 10% or less.
34. Inside Clearance (Ci):
• It is to reduce the friction between the soil sample and
the sampler, when the soil enters the tube by allowing
for elastic expansion of the sample.
• For an undisturbed sample the inside clearance should
be between 1 to 3%.
Outside Clearance (Co):
• This will help in reducing the friction while the
sampler is driven and when it is being withdrawn after
the collection of sample.
• For an undisturbed soil sample the outside clearance
should be lies between 0 and 2%. Co should be less
than Ci.
35.
36. Examples:
1. A sampler has the following dimensions, internal dia of sampler
tube is 70mm and outer dia is 72mm , the internal dia of cutting
edge is 69 mm and the outer dia is 73mm. Compute its inside
clearance, outside clearance and area ratio. Also comment on the
sample collected from the sampler.
2. The cutting edge of the sampling tube has outer dia of 75mm
and wall thickness of 1.7mm. Find out the area ratio.
3. Compute the area ratio of thin walled tube sampler having an
external dia of 6cm and a wall thickness of 2.25 mm. Do you
recommend the sampler for undisturbed soil sample and why?
4. One sampler has the area ratio of 8% while another has 16%
which of these samplers do you prefer to extract undisturbed
soil sample and why?
37. BORE LOG REPORT
• Information on subsurface conditions obtained from the boring
operation is typically presented in the form of a boring record
commonly known as ‘boring log’.
• It is also known as sub-soil investigation report which should
contain the data obtained from boreholes, site recommendations
about the suitable type of foundation, soil pressure and expected
settlements.
• It is essential to give a complete and accurate record of data
collected. All relevant data for the bore bole is recorded in a
boring log.
• A boring log gives the description or classification of various
strata encountered at different depths.
38. A soil exploration report generally consists of the following:
1. Introduction, which gives the scope of the investigation.
2. Description of the proposed structure, the location and the geological
conditions at the site.
3. Details of the field exploration programme, indicating the number of
borings, their location and depths.
4. Details of the method of exploration.
5. General description of the sub-soil conditions as obtained from in-
sites tests, such as standard penetration Test, cone test.
6. Details of the laboratory test conducted on the soil samples obtained
and the results obtained.
7. Date and weather condition during investigation.
8. Depth of ground water table and the change in water levels.
9. Discussion of the results.
10. 10.Recommendation about the allowable bearing pressure, the type
of foundation or structure.
11. 11.Conclusion:The main findings of the bore hole investigations
should be clearly stated.
39.
40. GEOPHYSICAL EXPLORATION
• Geophysical exploration may be used with advantage to locate
boundaries between different elements of the subsoil as these
procedures are based on the fact that the gravitational, magnetic,
electrical, radioactive or elastic properties of the different elements of
the subsoil may be different.
Different methods of geophysical explorations
1. Electrical resistivity method
• Electrical Profiling method
• Electrical Sounding method
2. Seismic Method
41. Electrical Resistivity Method
Electrical resistivity method is based on the difference in the
electrical conductivity or the electrical resistivity of different
soils. Resistivity is defined as resistance in ohms between the
opposite phases of a unit cube of a material.
ρ is resistivity in ohm-cm,
R is resistance in ohms,
A is the cross sectional area (cm2),
L is length of the conductor (cm).
42. The electrical resistivity methods are of the following two types:
1. Electrical Profiling Method.
2. Electrical Sounding method.
Electrical Profiling Method.
43. • The method is also known as the resistivity mapping method.
Four electrodes are used at a constant spacing ‘a’. To conduct the
test, four electrodes, which are usually in the form of metal
spikes, are driven into the ground.
• The two outer electrodes are known as current electrodes.
• The two inner electrodes are called potential electrodes.
• The mean resistivity of the strata is determined by applying a
D.C. current to the outer electrodes and by measuring the voltage
drop between the inner electrodes. A current of 50 to 100
milliamp is usually supplied.
• The mean resistivity (ρ) is given by the formula, ρ = 2πaV/I
Where I= Current supplied, a=Spacing of electrodes, V=Voltage
drop
45. • In this method, the electrode system, consisting of four
electrodes, is expanded about a fixed location, say P. The spacing
in the first setting is a1, which is increased to a2 in the second
setting and to a3 in the third setting.
• The spacing is thus gradually increased to a distance equal to the
depth of exploration.
• As the depth of the current penetration is equal to the electrode
spacing, the changes in the mean resistivity is correlated to the
changes in strata at that location.
46. Limitations of Electrical resistivity method:
(1) The methods are capable of detecting only the strata having different
electrical resistivity.
(2) The results are considerably influenced by surface irregularities,
wetness of the strata and electrolyte concentration of the ground
water.
(3) As the resistivity of different strata at the interface changes gradually
and not abruptly as assumed, the interpretation becomes difficult.
(4) The services of an expert in the field are needed.
48. • The seismic methods are based on the principle that the elastic
shock waves have different velocities in different materials. At the
interface of two different materials, the waves get partly reflected
and partly refracted. Seismic methods of subsurface explorations
generally utilise the refracted waves.
• The shock wave is created by a hammer blow or by a small
explosive charge at a point P.
• The shock wave travels through the top layer of the soil (or rock)
with a velocity V₁, depending upon the type of material in layer-I.
• The observation of the first arrival of the waves is recorded by
geophones located at various points, such as A, B, C.
• The geophones convert the ground vibration into electrical
impulses and transmit them to a recording apparatus
49. Limitation of the seismic methods
(1) The methods cannot be used if a hard layer with a greater
seismic velocity overlies a softer layer with a smaller seismic
velocity.
(2) The methods cannot be used for the areas covered by concrete,
asphalt pavements or any other artificial hard crust, having a
high seismic velocity.
(3) If the area contains some underground features, such as buried
conduits, irregularly dipping strata, and irregular water table,
the interpretation of the results becomes very difficult.
(4) If the surface layer is frozen, the method cannot be
successfully used, as it corresponds to a case of harder layer
overlying a softer layer.
(5) The methods require sophisticated and costly equipment.
(6) For proper interpretations of the seismic survey results, the
services of an expert are required.
50. ^types baved on
1/613
4 Wash
To
AvnER
luson
Core
wedl
when he
ofBoINh:
Ahe
loatt t
Collocd tho
Cordel th
qwpment
BoRNG:
inmaion
nd
Sol Samples .
A-1n)
mothod
Aeph ttoyatin,s
ork
laparten
tetd ten.
sed
than bmtheonoyinys
51. HAND
b
Const
(ertial
AvefRS
bia
at the
9
he
Tthote
3
nFHANIAL AvfR
hard sthahe
chere
AovANW:
r
1:The
34
hok
Sme Yime
DisADVANTALE S:
3.2}
Sols
larpred
the
and
Jreray
Sol strata
man
becmes
Cannl
obsimeitr ohith
driyen
20
be
shan k
wbresdy
Can
suew.The
ad van(ed y
we
5
advantiS
thrut
Soll
4pto
hole uo a
in th down wad
Power, 13
sbsngatinvedlgaion
anoth y
an be
whck Can
we when the are
used
Small
guite apdy and
hoe.
opeyatad ihanta
diveton
12 m.
w.houd
and
epnomialy
Sampu a
hilunyany ae
and
ho in
kyly dstwda
bouldrs olhy
52. t In
ten seri
W
tnd
Khon
water
nl
wash
water
AoVANTANGES
qupnnd
into
T hole
hode :s
Rumped
jethy
CABLE
the hole
halow drll
doon
adhvan (ed
autn
the
tus thranyh 7-shaped pipt
oten
Soil.
advanced
iS
<che meHod is ho Slau
T-PIPE
the
Br7
Tod
drlled
CAS'NG
th
and
hrtuyh
hal
a
,TUR
alienatively r
DisAoVAN7AAE Th Wah sanply lolerkd in
pt
hd in
and
ard ats
Small opning he
h
Choping pt at lony
hruorly
and
atton
(plleeked in a
Joil.
the
and he
dushubed
53. Ro1AR DeING
Tthe
Rod whi
As
made
borehole
Depth
"the
ha
Consists
doumwod
diling
Can
thiy method.
ExpLORATUON:
a
*Grhensy
advanted by
to the boton o) ho hole,.
mehod is
shapt
Too
So
anl
prse.
struuturp
progile.
at owey
methansm
Roodng
depth uto ohit thy
cajad in Clay sand and oces.
duperds
atating
sress
loads, Can prudnu ryan
On
end.
oadd
inAYemet de to uper
selMemen? anol shesr rees