Here is an in-depth presentation that overviews twenty two (22) qualitative data methods that can be used in marketing research. For more great FREE resources, join us on facebook today at www.facebook.comb2bwhiteboard.
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Topics:
Quantitative research
Characteristics of Quantitative Research
Strengths of Quantitative Research
Weaknesses of Quantitative Research
Importance of Quantitative Research Across Fields
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
Ethnography is a Social science research method. It is the primary data collection method. It is mainly combined with social background. A qualitative approach that studies the cultural patterns and perspectives of participants in their natural setting.
Ethnography came from Greek, it identifies its roots in sociology and anthropology.
*Ethnos = People
*Graphing = Writing
“Ethnography literally means ‘a portrait of a people’. Ethnography is a written description of a particular culture, the custom, belief and behaviour based on information collected through field work.” (Harris and Johnson 2000).
Topics:
Quantitative research
Characteristics of Quantitative Research
Strengths of Quantitative Research
Weaknesses of Quantitative Research
Importance of Quantitative Research Across Fields
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN
Ethnography is a Social science research method. It is the primary data collection method. It is mainly combined with social background. A qualitative approach that studies the cultural patterns and perspectives of participants in their natural setting.
Ethnography came from Greek, it identifies its roots in sociology and anthropology.
*Ethnos = People
*Graphing = Writing
“Ethnography literally means ‘a portrait of a people’. Ethnography is a written description of a particular culture, the custom, belief and behaviour based on information collected through field work.” (Harris and Johnson 2000).
FINDING YOUR STORY DATA ANALYSISCH. 7 Finding Your Story Data MerrileeDelvalle969
FINDING YOUR STORY: DATA ANALYSIS
CH. 7 Finding Your Story: Data Analysis
Glesne, C. (2016). Becoming qualitative researchers: An introduction (5th ed.). Pearson.
Chapter 7
Finding Your Story: Data Analysis
I can no longer put off the inevitable. I’ve been home three weeks, and I’ve found as many distractions as I could to avoid coding. I’ve organized my files, I’ve set up the study and done a major reorganization so I can spread out the stacks that will soon pile up. I’m reading, I’m thinking, and as a way of really beginning, I took out the prospectus I wrote in November. During the last months at my site, I put a few Post-it notes into the prospectus file with other BIG looming ideas, ones that showed me I would have to tinker with the planned structure. Today I thought I’d just print out a sheet of the tentative chapter structure to put up on the wall (and delay coding once again?). I began typing it, and what did I find? It’s all wrong, it doesn’t capture the way I’ve been thinking at all. The power of the shift hit me head on. I tried to reorganize the chapters, but I found that wouldn’t work either. So instead I wrote out the big themes I have been thinking about in my sleep, while I drive, when I cook Passover food . . . and that’s where I’ll have to start.
(Pugach, personal correspondence, March 31, 1994)
Data analysis involves organizing what you have seen, heard, and read so you can figure out what you have learned and make sense of what you have experienced. Working with the data, you describe, compare, create explanations, link your story to other stories, and possibly pose hypotheses or develop theories. How you go about doing so, however, can vary widely. Linguistic traditions, for example, focus upon words and conversations, treating “text as an object of analysis itself” (Ryan & Bernard, 2000, p. 769) and may use procedures such as formal narrative analysis, discourse analysis, or linguistic analysis as tools for making sense of data. Researchers from sociological traditions tend to treat “text as a window into human experience” (Ryan & Bernard, 2000, p. 769) and use thematic analysis procedures to deal with data through coding and segregating data for further analysis, description, and interpretation. Thematic analysis, the approach most widely used in ethnographic work, receives primary attention in this chapter, but for comparison, several other forms of data analysis are introduced as well.
Varying Forms of Analysis
The form of analysis you use is linked to your methodology, research goals, data collection methods, and so on. This chapter does not attempt to explain the multiple approaches to data analysis that are available, but four different approaches are presented to introduce how and why analysis procedures may vary. Read more widely on modes that resonate with you, and on data analysis in general. This section begins with an introduction to thematic analysis, the kind of data analysis focused upon throughout th ...
CHAPTER FOUR Five Qualitative Approaches to InquiryWe wan.docxtiffanyd4
CHAPTER FOUR :
Five Qualitative Approaches to Inquiry
We want to present a couple of scenarios. In the first, the qualitative researcher does not identify any specific approach to qualitative research he or she is using. Perhaps the methods discussion is short and simply limited to the collection of face-to-face interviews. The findings of the study are presented as a thematic workup of major categories of information collected during the interviews. Contrast this with a second scenario. The researcher adopts a specific approach to qualitative research, such as a narrative research approach. Now the methods section is detailed describing the meaning of such an approach, why it was used, and how it informed the procedures of the study. The findings in this study convey the specific story of an individual, and it is told chronologically, highlighting some of the tensions in the story. Details about the specific organization in which the individual’s story takes place provide important contextual information. Which approach would you find to be the most scholarly? The most inviting? The most sophisticated? We think that you would opt for the second approach.
We need to identify our approach to qualitative inquiry in order to present it as a sophisticated study; to offer it as a specific type so that reviewers can properly assess it; and, for the beginning researcher, who can profit from having a writing structure to follow, to offer some way of organizing ideas that can be grounded in the scholarly literature of qualitative research. Of course, this beginning researcher could choose several qualitative approaches, such as narrative research and phenomenological research, but we would leave this more advanced methodological approach to more experienced researchers. We often say that the beginning researcher needs to first understand one approach thoroughly and then venture out and try another approach before combining different ways of conducting qualitative research.
This chapter will help you begin the mastery of one of the qualitative approaches to inquiry as well as to distinguish among the five approaches. We take each approach, one by one, and provide a definition, discuss its origin, identify the key defining features of it, explore the various types of ways to use it, and provide procedures involved in conducting a study within the approach. Then we consider challenges that you will likely incur as you proceed and outline the emerging directions associated with the approach. Finally, a comparison of the five approaches across foundational considerations, data procedures, and research reporting is followed.
Questions for Discussion
· What is the focus and definition for each approach (narrative research, phenomenological research, ground theory research, ethnographic research, and case study research)?
· What are the origin and background influences for each approach?
· What are the defining features of each approach?
· What various form.
Qualitative research design in research in educationRashna Asif
This presentation all about the qualitative research design its approaches features characteristics analysis and also data collection tools in this presentation approaches are very deeply discussed.
The Case StudyMany disciplines use various forms of the ca.docxmamanda2
The Case Study
Many disciplines use various forms of the case study to examine an individual or phenomenon within a specified context. The approach and application of case study designs also can vary widely between various disciplines such as medicine, law, and the social sciences. However, in the social and behavioral sciences, case studies are often referred to as uncontrolled studies. Yin (2013) defined the case study as an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-world context, when the boundaries between phenomena and context are not clearly evident, in which multiple data sources are used. Yin referred to the case study as a “method” as opposed to confining it to only an approach or a “tradition” within the various forms of qualitative research (e.g., Creswell, 2012). Generally, the focus of the case study is on developing a narrative or revealing a phenomenon based on an in-depth, real-time, or retrospective analysis of a case. Therefore, issues related to experimental control and internal validity are nonfactors within this approach. Although case studies do not infer causation and the results should not be generalized, the findings can provide rich insight toward phenomena and serve as support for theories and the generation of hypotheses. However, if desired, Yin does offer approaches and models for researchers interested in attempting to infer causation from case study designs (which differs from QCA analysis).
The emphasis in a case study is primarily the qualitative method; however, cross sections of quantitative data are usually collected as supplementary data throughout the analyses (see mixed method embedded case study design). The label of case study is often applied to many social science examinations as a catchall term, many times misapplying the concept (Malcolm, 2010). However, the case study design can be applied to any of the approaches within the qualitative method, such as the most commonly applied narrative and phenomenological approach in psychology (Singer & Bonalume, 2010a) or the ethnographic approach in education (Creswell, 2014). Creswell took a different angle than Yin (2013) regarding the type and description of designs for the case study. Gall, Gall, and Borg (2007) succinctly described a case study “as (a) the in-depth study of (b) one or more instances of a phenomenon (c) in its real-life context that (d) reflects the perspective of the participants involved in the phenomenon” (p. 447).
Confusion does arise when authors use different terminology for similar constructs. These semantic differences can be seen in the work of Yin, who uniquely defined and applied the terms holistic and embedded (see Appendix B) differently than their traditional uses; for example, the term embedded has an entirely different meaning when used by Creswell. Another example of this is the term case study design, used within the qualitative method and most often associated with the ethnographic and phenomeno.
The Case StudyMany disciplines use various forms of the ca.docxarnoldmeredith47041
The Case Study
Many disciplines use various forms of the case study to examine an individual or phenomenon within a specified context. The approach and application of case study designs also can vary widely between various disciplines such as medicine, law, and the social sciences. However, in the social and behavioral sciences, case studies are often referred to as uncontrolled studies. Yin (2013) defined the case study as an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-world context, when the boundaries between phenomena and context are not clearly evident, in which multiple data sources are used. Yin referred to the case study as a “method” as opposed to confining it to only an approach or a “tradition” within the various forms of qualitative research (e.g., Creswell, 2012). Generally, the focus of the case study is on developing a narrative or revealing a phenomenon based on an in-depth, real-time, or retrospective analysis of a case. Therefore, issues related to experimental control and internal validity are nonfactors within this approach. Although case studies do not infer causation and the results should not be generalized, the findings can provide rich insight toward phenomena and serve as support for theories and the generation of hypotheses. However, if desired, Yin does offer approaches and models for researchers interested in attempting to infer causation from case study designs (which differs from QCA analysis).
The emphasis in a case study is primarily the qualitative method; however, cross sections of quantitative data are usually collected as supplementary data throughout the analyses (see mixed method embedded case study design). The label of case study is often applied to many social science examinations as a catchall term, many times misapplying the concept (Malcolm, 2010). However, the case study design can be applied to any of the approaches within the qualitative method, such as the most commonly applied narrative and phenomenological approach in psychology (Singer & Bonalume, 2010a) or the ethnographic approach in education (Creswell, 2014). Creswell took a different angle than Yin (2013) regarding the type and description of designs for the case study. Gall, Gall, and Borg (2007) succinctly described a case study “as (a) the in-depth study of (b) one or more instances of a phenomenon (c) in its real-life context that (d) reflects the perspective of the participants involved in the phenomenon” (p. 447).
Confusion does arise when authors use different terminology for similar constructs. These semantic differences can be seen in the work of Yin, who uniquely defined and applied the terms holistic and embedded (see Appendix B) differently than their traditional uses; for example, the term embedded has an entirely different meaning when used by Creswell. Another example of this is the term case study design, used within the qualitative method and most often associated with the ethnographic and phenomeno.
Thematic analysis is a poorly demarcated, rarely-acknowledged, yet widely-used qualitative analytic method within psychology. In this paper, we argue that it offers an accessible and theoretically-flexible approach to analysing qualitative data. We outline what thematic analysis is, locating it in relation to other qualitative analytic methods that search for themes or patterns, and in relation to different epistemological and ontological positions. We then provide clear guidelines to those wanting to start thematic analysis, or conduct it in a more deliberate and rigorous way, and consider potential pitfalls in conducting thematic analysis. Finally, we outline the disadvantages and advantages of thematic analysis. We conclude by advocating thematic analysis as a useful and flexible method for qualitative research in and beyond psychology.
Keywords: thematic analysis, qualitative psychology, patterns, epistemology, flexibility
Braun, V. and Clarke, V., 2006
Qualitative research involves collecting and analyzing non-numerical data (e.g., text, video, or audio) to understand concepts, opinions, or experiences. It can be used to gather in-depth insights into a problem or generate new ideas for research.
Qualitative research is a systematic, interactive, subjective, approach used to describe life experience and give them meaning where as quantitative research is a formal, objective systematic process to describe, test relationships and examine cause and effect interaction among variables.
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The neuromarketing concept was developed by psychologists at Harvard University in 1990. The technology is based on a model whereby the major thinking part of human activity (over 90%) including emotion proceeds in subconscious area that is below the levels of controlled awareness. For this reason the perception technologists of the market are very tempted to learn the techniques of effective manipulation of the subconscious brain activity.
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This presentation covers the importance of developing an Integrated Marketing Communications Media Strategy.
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Prepare a presentation or a paper using research, basic comparative analysis, data organization and application of economic information. You will make an informed assessment of an economic climate outside of the United States to accomplish an entertainment industry objective.
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Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
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• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
2. Strength of Qualitative Research
• The strength of qualitative research is its ability to
provide complex textual descriptions of how people
experience a given research issue. It provides
information about the “human” side of an issue –
that is, the often contradictory behaviors, beliefs,
opinions, emotions, and relationships of
individuals.
• I have compiled and overviewed twenty two
qualitative research methods to help students,
practitioners and academics with their research
projects.
3. 1. Typology
• Typology – is the classification of observations in terms of their
attributes on two or more variables
• Typologies of research topics in a specific area are necessary because
they enable the organization of knowledge. They are very useful to
understand the relationships between the research topics, leading to
the analysis of the main topics, their time evolution, etc. They have has
been used many times by other researchers to analyze trends,
compare research outputs, etc.
Reference: Smith G., Krogstad J.L. (1988) “A taxonomy of content and citations in Auditing:
A journal of Practice and Theory”; Auditing : A journal of Practice and Theory, vol.8 n°1, Fall p. 108-117.
4. 2. Grounded Theory
• Grounded theory (GT) - is a systematic methodology in the social
sciences involving the generation of theory from data
• Grounded theory is a research method, which operates almost in a
reverse fashion from traditional research and at first sight may appear
to be in contradiction to the scientific method. Rather than beginning
with a hypothesis, the first step is data collection, through a variety of
methods. From the data collected, the key points are marked with a
series of codes, which are extracted from the text. The codes are
grouped into similar concepts in order to make them more workable.
From these concepts, categories are formed, which are the basis for
the creation of a theory, or a reverse engineered hypothesis . This
contradicts the traditional model of research, where the researcher
chooses a theoretical framework, and only then applies this model to
the phenomenon to be studied.
Reference: Patricia Yancey Martin & Barry A. Turner, "Grounded Theory and Organizational Research,"
The Journal of Applied Behavioral Science, vol. 22, no. 2 (1986), 141.
5. 3. Analytic Induction
• Analytic Induction - refers to a systematic examination of similarities
between various social phenomena in order to develop concepts or
ideas. Social scientists doing social research use analytic induction to
search for those similarities in broad categories and then develop
subcategories. For example, social scientist may examine the category
of marijuana users' and then develop subcategories for 'uses marijuana
for pleasure' and 'uses marijuana for health reasons'. If no relevant
similarities can be identified, then either the data needs to be
reevaluated and the definition of similarities changed, or the category is
too wide and heterogeneous and should be narrowed down.
Reference: Charles C. Ragin, Constructing Social Research: The Unity and Diversity of Method,
Pine Forge Press, 1994,
7. 5. Quasi-Statistics
• Quasi-Statistics - simple counts of things to make statements such as
“some,” “usually,” and “most” more precise.
• For example, to perform an educational experiment, a class might be
arbitrarily divided by alphabetical selection or by seating arrangement.
The division is often convenient and, especially in an educational
situation, causes as little disruption as possible.
Reference: Problems of Inference and Proof in Participant Observation Howard S. Becker America Sociological Review
Vol. 23, No. 6 (Dec., 1958), pp. 652-660 (article consists of 9 pages)
8. 6. Narrative Event Analysis
• Narrative event analysis - involves stories and the systematic
investigation of chains of events and / or actions that lead to a
conclusion.
• Narrative event analysis enabled a focus on the interaction of events
over time and enabled the researcher to move beyond simple
correlation between variables. Its enables consideration of the
important explanations that can emerge from considering timing, order
and interaction of events.
• Narrative event analysis presented is guided by the work of Franzosi
(2003) who developed a distinct approach to the analysis of what he
terms “narrative data”. His ambition, however, was to convert
qualitative data text into a numerical scale by adopting a coding
framework that, in his most celebrated applications, allows counts of
coded events from over 15,000 narrative texts that enabled him to
develop di-graphs or maps.
References: Abell, P. (1987). The Syntax of Social Life: Theory and Method of Comparative
Narratives Oxford.
Franzosi, R. (1998). "Narrative analysis, or why (and how) sociologists should be interested in
narrative." Annual Review of Sociology 24: 517-54.
9. 7. Domain Analysis
• Domain Analysis - helps in Knowledge Management to discover
patterns that exist in the cultural behaviour, cultural artifacts and
cultural knowledge in the group from whom the data was gathered.
• A domain analysis allows the ethnographer to move from merely
observing a social situation to discovering the cultural scene, two
closely related but dramatically different concepts. It is the first type of
ethnographic analysis, the others being taxonomic analysis,
componential analysis and thematic analysis. Knowledge domains
discover the specific nature of the relationships existing between
cultural concepts, individual interpretations and particular terminologies
in order to determine actual cultural activities, objects and knowledge.
Reference: "Participant Observation and The Ethnographic Interview", James P. Spradley, Wadsworth Thomson Learning
(1979)
10. 8. Taxonomic Analysis
• Taxonomic Analysis - is a search for the way that cultural domains are
organized. It usually involves drawing a graphical interpretation of the
ways in which the individual participants’ moves, form groups and
patterns that structure the conversation.
• In taxonomic analysis an analysis is conducted of the roles of one
individual as they necessarily relate to other roles of the same
individual (i.e., a father is by definition someone who has already been
a son, and someone who may yet become a grandfather, or an uncle,
or a father-in-law, etc.). Taxonomic analysis of role identities requires a
different perspective than componential analysis which defines a role
by asking how a person with that role is different from another person.
• A taxonomic analysis is useful in understanding knowledge creation
and utilization, and the knowledge needs of the organization and its
members.
References "Participant Observation and The Ethnographic Interview:", James P. Spradley,
WadsworthThomson Learning (1979) "Taxonomic Analysis", James P. Spradley, Harcourt
Brace (1980)
11. 9. Thematic Analysis
• Thematic analysis - was used as a method to identify, analyse and
report patterns (themes) within data. It minimally organises and
describes data in rich detail.
• The benefit of thematic analysis is that it is not a linear process of
simply moving from one phase to the next. Instead, it is more a
recursive process, where movement back and forth is needed,
throughout the six phases below. It is also a process that develops over
time.
Reference: Braun, V. and V. Clarke (2006). "Using thematic analysis in psychology." Qualitative Research
in Psychology 3: 77-81.
12. 10. Metaphorical Analysis
• Metaphorical Analysis - is conceptualized in cognitive linguistics—as a
qualitative method for psychological research for several reasons.
Metaphors are culturally and socially defined, yet they also represent a
basic cognitive strategy of analogical problem solving. Metaphors are
context-sensitive, yet at the same time they are abstract models of
reality much in the same way as mental models and schemata in
cognitive psychology. The multifaceted properties of metaphors allow
for the study of micro-interactions between cognition and culture in
open and qualitative research designs. They also enable the bridging of
the gap between quantitative-experimental and qualitative approaches
in psychology. Because metaphors are of high plausibility in everyday
experience, metaphors are a valuable tool for interventions in applied
fields of research such as organizational and work psychology.
Reference: Karen S Moser, Metaphor Analysis in Psychology—Method, Theory, and Fields of Application Forum for
Qualitative Research Volume 1, No. 2, Art. 21 – June 2000
13. 11. Hermeneutical Analysis
• Hermeneutical Analysis – is the study of meaning or of meaningful
things and actions such as those found in literature and culture.
Hermeneutics is associated with qualitative social research in general,
and with phenomenology in particular.
Reference: S. Lowe, A. Carr, M. Thomas, L. Mathys, The fourth hermeneutic in marketing theory, Marketing
Theory June 2005 vol. 5 no. 2 185-203
14. 12. Discourse Analysis
• Discourse Analysis - a study of the way versions or the world, society,
events and psyche are produced in the use of language and discourse.
The Foucauldian version is concerned with the construction of subjects
within various forms of knowledge/power. Semiotics, deconstruction
and narrative analysis are forms of discourse analysis.
Reference: Discourse and Text: Linguistic and Intertextual Analysis within Discourse Analysis, N Fairclough Discourse &
Society (1992) Volume: 3, Issue: 2, Publisher: Sage Publications, Pages: 193-217
15. 13. Semiotics
• Semiotics - is the science of signs and symbols, such as body
language
• Helps in determine how the meanings of signs and symbols is
constructed. Assume meaning is not inherent in those, meaning comes
from relationships with other things. Sometimes presented with a
postmodernist emphasis.
• Example: meaning of brands
Reference: Narrative, Content, and Semiotic Analysis, P K Manning, B Cullum-Swan,Handbook of Qualitative
Research (1994)Issue: 9, Publisher: Sage, Pages: 463-478
16. 14. Content Analysis
• Content Analysis - examine documents, text, or speech to see what
themes emerge. What do people talk about the most? See how themes
relate to each other. Find latent emphases, political view of newspaper
writer, which is implicit or look at surface level - overt emphasis.
• Theory driven - theory determines what you look for. Rules are
specified for data
Reference: Berelson, B., 1952. Content Analysis in Communication Research. The Free Press, Glencoe, Illinois
17. 15. Analytic Induction
• Analytic induction - is a way of building explanations in qualitative
analysis by constructing and testing a set of causal links between
events, actions etc. in one case and the iterative extension of this to
further cases.
Reference: Jack Katz (2001) "Analytic Induction," in Smelser and Baltes, (eds) International Encyclopedia of the Social and
Behavioral Sciences.
18. 16. Action Research
• Action research - is a methodology that combines 'action' and
'research' together. During a study the researcher is repeating the
process of performing an action, reflecting on what has happened and
using this information to plan their next action. This process of action
research has a refining effect on action and the researcher gains
understanding of what is going on (Dick, 1992, Greenwood 2002)
Reference: Dick B (1992) So you want to do an action research thesis? University of Queensland.
Greenwood, D. (2002). Action research: Unfulfilled promises and unmet challenges. Concepts and Transformation, 7(2),
117–139.
19. 17. Biography
• Biography - an approach to research which elicits and analyses a
person’s biography or life history - an extended, written account or
narrative of a person's life. Such a biography usually has a structure
and is expressed in key themes often with an epiphany or turning point.
Typically, the epiphany is the point in the person’s life when they think
things changed and they became a different person – the person they
are now. The narrative is usually chronological. Can be contrasted with
a life history which is usually given at an interview. However, this
distinction is not always maintained and the terms now tend to be used
interchangeably.
Reference: Interpretive Biography (Qualitative Research Methods) Author: Norman K. Denzin, Sage Publications, Inc
Pages: 96 Published: 1989
20. 18. Case Study
• Case Study – a research method (or design) focusing on the study of a
single case. Usually it is not designed to compare one individual or
group to another. Though it is possible to conduct a series of case
studies, each study would not be designed specifically to enable
comparison with others.
Reference: The Case Study Method in Social Inquiry Robert E. Stake Educational Researcher Vol. 7, No. 2 (Feb., 1978), pp.
5-8 .
Yin, R. (1984) Case study research. Beverly Hills, C A : Sage Publications
21. 19. Constructivism
• Constructivism - looks at the systems people create to interpret the
world around them and their experiences. It can also be referred to as
social constructionism. The epistemological view that the phenomena
of the social and cultural world and their meanings are not objective but
are created in human social interaction, that is, they are socially
constructed. The approach often, though not exclusively, draws on
idealist philosophy. Some writers distinguish Social Constructivism as a
more radical version of social constructionism, but often the terms are
used interchangeably.
Reference: Constructivism. Theory, Perspectives, and Practice, Fosnot, Catherrine,Teachers , 1996 College Press, 1234
Amsterdam Avenue, New York, NY 10027.
22. 20. Phenomenography
• Phenomenography - the subject investigates the differing ways in which
people experience, perceive, apprehend, understand, and
conceptualise various phenomena, and this has been seen as critical
for the development of learners' understanding of the central
phenomena, concepts and principles, and hence for their mastery of
the domain.
• Phenomenography is a qualitative research method, the history of
which goes back only to the mid to late 1970s. It should not be
confused with phenomenolgy. Phenomenology is the study of what
people perceive in the world; phenomenography is the study of the way
people conceive of the world. A good reference, to get started, is an
article by Marton:
Reference: Marton, F. (1981) Phenomenography - describing conceptions of the world around us. Instructional Science, 10,
177-200.
23. 21. Ethnography
• Ethnography - is a broad multi-qualitative method involving (participant
observation, interviewing, discourse analyses of natural language, and
personal documents) approach that studies people in their "...naturally
occurring settings or 'fields' by means of methods which capture their
social meanings and ordinary activities, involving the researcher
participating directly in the setting..." (Brewer, 2000:10).
Reference: Intergroup relations. The handbook of social psychology, Brewer, Marilynn B.; Brown, Rupert J. The handbook of
social psychology, 1998, Vols. 1 and 2 (4th ed.).(pp. 554-594) New York.
24. 22. Mood Mapping
• Mood mapping - involves plotting how you feel against your energy
levels, to determine your current mood.
• Application: Twitter studies of emotions
Reference: Mood Mapping: Plot Your Way to Emotional Health and Happiness Miller - 2009 - Pan Macmillan
25. You are welcome to contact Nigel Bairstow at B2B
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