The document outlines the principles and methods of qualitative research, contrasting it with quantitative research while highlighting its focus on understanding human experiences and meanings. It discusses various qualitative research methods such as ethnography, phenomenology, and grounded theory, emphasizing the importance of context and participant perspectives in data collection and analysis. Additionally, it details the basic elements of qualitative research design, including the involvement of the researcher and the flexible, emergent nature of study frameworks.

1. QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH

2. INTRODUCTION :
• Qualitative research is a systematic, interactive,
subjective, approach used to describe life
experience and give them meaning where as
quantitative research is a formal, objective
systematic process to describe, test
relationships and examine cause and effect
interaction among variables.
• Qualitative approaches focus on “discovery
and meaning of theory by describing”
demonstrating a human science emphasis.

3. • Recently, nurse researchers come to appreciate the
complexity of nursing phenomena, the value of
exploring subjective experience of patients and
nurses is being recognized. Currently nurse
researcher are develop open to using qualitative
approaches to develop subjective information
while also remaining open using quantitative
approach.
• Qualitative research tradition have their roots in
anthropology (e.g. ethnography and ethno
science); philosophy (phenomenology and
hermeneutics); psychology(ecological psychology
); sociology (grounded theory ) and history
(historical research).

4.  DEFINITION:
“A research method in which the
investigator seeks to identify the qualitative
(nonnumerical )aspects of the phenomenon
under study from the participant’s
viewpoint in order to interpreted the
meaning of the totality of the phenomenon.
Usually conducted in natural settings.”

5. Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches
Qualitative Quantitative
(Usually) Non-probability based
sample
Typically a probability-based
sample
Non-generalizable Generalizable
Answers Why? How? Answers How many? When?
Where?
Formative, earlier phases Tests hypotheses, latter phases
Data are “rich” and time-
consuming to analyze
Data are more efficient, but may
miss contextual detail
Design may emerge as study
unfolds
Design decided in advance
Researcher IS the instrument Various tools, instruments
employed

6. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
Qualitative
Research
Quantitative
Research
Purpose Discover ideas Test hypotheses or
specific research
questions
Approach Observe and interpret Measure and test
Data Collection
Methods
Unstructured; free-
forms
Structured; response
categories provided
Researcher
Independence
Researcher is
intimately involved;
results are subjective
Researcher is
uninvolved; results are
objective
Sample Small samples – often
natural setting
Large samples to allow
generalization
Most often used in: Exploratory research
designs
Descriptive and causal
research designs

7. Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research
Qualitative Research
To gain a qualitative
understanding of the
underlying reasons and
motivations
Small number of non-
representative cases
Unstructured
Non-statistical
Develop an initial
understanding
Objective
Sample
Data
Collection
Data Analysis
Outcome
Quantitative Research
To quantify the data and
generalize the results from
the sample to the population
of interest
Large number of
representative cases
Structured
Statistical
Recommend a final course of
action

8.  PURPOSES OF QUALITATIVE
RESEARCH :
 Descriptive: When little is known about a group of people
. an institution , or some social phenomenon , in –depth
interviewing or participant observation are good ways to
learn about them, e.g. how do mental people live?
 Illustrating the meaning of description or
relationships : Suppose a researcher were studying stress
and coping behavior among recently divorced women. In
quantitative research, researcher can say that 80% of women
experience distress and 20% make them busy in professional
work. When in qualitative research there is analysis of stress
like, I cannot foresee my future. What I am here for.etc.

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 Hypothesis generation:
A researcher using qualitative technique often has no
explicit a priory hypothesis. The collection of in-depth
information about some phenomenon might, however lead
to the formulation of hypothesis that could be tested more
formally in subsequent research. For example, a researcher
may be investigating through in-depth interviews the
reason for discontinued use of oral contraceptive among
teenage girls. Open ended discussion with a sample of girls
might lead the researcher to hypothesize that girls whose
boyfriend have complained about the pill’s side effects on
the girls ( e.g. weight gain, moodiness, head ache)are more
likely to stop using pills than girls whose boyfriends have
not made such complaints.

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 Understanding relationship and casual process
Quantitative methods often demonstrate that variables are
systematically related to one another, but they often fail to
provide insight about why the variable are related. For
example suppose we found that special care unit nurses
had higher self esteem than other nurses.
 Theory development:
Qualitative researchers often analyze their data with an
integrated explanatory scheme. The term grounded theory
is frequently used in connection with a certain approach to
analyzing qualitative data as developed by two sociologist.

11. BASIC ELEMENTS OF
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH:
Identifying the phenomenon
Structuring the study
Gathering the data
Analyzing the data
Describing the finding

12. CHARACTERISTICS OF
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN:
 Often involves a merging together of various data collection
strategies (i.e. , triangulation)
 Is flexible and elastic, capable of adjusting to what is being
learned during the course data collection;
 Trends to be holistic, striving for an understanding of the whole;
 Require researcher to become intensely involved, often
remaining in field for lengthy period of time;
 Require researcher to become the research instrument
 Require on going analysis of the data formulation subsequent
strategies and to determine when fieldwork is done.

13. Qualitative design and
planning
 Selecting a broad frame work or tradition to guide
certain design decisions.
 Determining the minimum amount of time
available for the study, given costs and other
constraints.
 Developing a broad data collection strategies (e.g.
will interview be conducted?) and Identifying
opportunities for enhancing trust worthiness and
documenting it.

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 Collecting relevant written or photographic
materials about the site ( e.g. maps , organization
chart)
 Identifying the types of equipment that could aid
in the collection and analysis of data in the field
(e.g. audio and video recording equipment,
laptop computer) and the type of assistance
needed to computer project.
 Identifying personal biases, views, presupposition
the phenomenon as well as ideological
reflexivity)

15.  Qualitative research design
features:
1. Intervention , control, and masking :
• Qualitative research is non experimental, sometimes
embedded in experimental projects. Researcher conducting
a study within the naturalistic paradigm do not normally
conceptualize the studies as having independent and
dependant variables, and they rarely control or manipulate
any aspect of people or environment under study.
• Masking is also not a strategy used by qualitative
researcher because there is no intervention or hypothesis to
conceal.

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2. Comparison :
• Qualitative researchers do not plan to compare in
advance because the study is thoroughly describe
and explain phenomenon. Morse has noted in an
editorial about qualitative comparisons that
appeared in qualitative health research, “all
description requires comparisons”. Group
comparison sometimes are planned in qualitative
studies (e.g. a comparison of nurses’ and patients’
perspectives about a phenomenon.)

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3. Research setting :
Qualitative researchers usually collect their data in
real –world, naturalistic settings to study
phenomenon in a variety of natural contexts at
multiple sites.
4. Timeframes :
Qualitative research can be either cross sectional,
with one data collection or longitudinal, with
multiple data collection points over an extended
time period, to observe the evolution of some
phenomenon.

18.  METHODS OF
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH :
According to leininger (1992) there are 4
identified qualitative research methods. Here
focuses on four methods most commonly used by
nurses which includes:
 Ethnography
 Phenomenological
 Grounded theory
 Historical

19. ETHNOGRAPHICAL
RESEARCH METHOD :

20.  Introduction
• Ethnography is the systematic process of
observation, detailing, describing, documenting,
and analyzing the particular pattern of culture or
subculture in order to group patterns of the people
in their familiar environment.
• “Ethnography seeks to represent social “things”
as they are grasped and shaped through the
meaning conferring response of members. To
understand the way that group members interpret
the flow of events in their lives.” - R.Emerson
(2001)

21.  Definition :
• “Ethnography refers primarily to a particular
method or set of methods. In its most
characteristic form it involves the ethnographer ,
participating overtly or covertly, in people’s daily
lives for an extended period of time, watching
what happens, listening to what is said, asking
questions – in fact collecting whatever data are
available to throw light on the issues that are the
focus of research”- Hammersley and Atkinson

22. Research Complex Situations
Holistically

23. Facilitates zooming in into particular aspects,
relations or phenomenon in the setting without
losing sight of the whole

24. Enables the researcher to understand the
culture through the interpretations,
experiences and perceptions and meanings
given by those living within this specific
cultural context.
I can’t find my
tent, this is
really a bummer
man!

25.  It focuses on scientific description of cultural
group. The primary purpose of this to formulate an
in depth description of a culture or subculture of
the group studied.
 Macro ethnography: broadly define culture (a
samoan village culture)
 Micro ethnography : narrowly defined culture (
the culture of homeless people).
 Ethnographer sometimes refers to ‘emic’ and
‘etic’ perceptive.

26. Etic perceptive:
• It is the outsider
interpretation of
the experience of
that culture.
Culture

27. Emic
perceptive:
It refers to the
way the
member of the
culture
envision their
world- it is
insiders’ view.
Culture

28. The most important research
tool is: researcher himself
• The study of culture requires certain
intimacy with the member and it develops
by staying with them and active
participation. The concept of researcher as
instrument is frequently used by
anthropologist to describe the significant
role ethnographer play in analysing and
interpretation a culture.

29. • Three type of information are: cultural behaviour
(what member of the culture do), cultural
artefacts’ (what member of a culture makes and
use) and cultural speech. This implies that wide
variety of sources, including observation, in depth
interview, records, charts and other types of
physical evidence (e.g. photographer, diaries,
letters).
• Ethnographer takes help from key informants to
understand and interpret the events and activities
being observed.

30. • Some ethnographer under take an egocentric
network analysis which focuses on the pattern of
relationships and networks of individuals. Each
person has his or her own network of relationships
that cut across many groups and that are presumed
to contribute to the person’s behaviour and
attitude.
• A performance ethnography has been describe
as a scripted and staged modernization of
ethnographically derived notes that reflect an
interpretation of culture.

31. ETHNO NURSING
RESEARCH :
• Leininger has coined the phrase
ethnonursing research , which she defines
as “ the study and analysis of the local or
indigenous people’s view points, beliefs and
practices about nursing care behaviour and
process of designated culture”.

32. • Leininger has described a number of
enablers to guide researcher. Enablers are
ways to help discover complex phenomenon
like human care. Some of her enabler s
include Stranger-friend model, Observation
–participation reflexion model and
Acculturation enabler guide.
• The stranger friend enabler serves as guide
to be more aware of their feeling ,behaviour
and response as they transition from
stranger to trusted friend.

33.  Observation –participation reflexion enabler
include
1. Primary observation and active listening
2. Primary observation with limited participation
3. Primary participation with continuing
observation
4. Primary reflection and reconfirmation of results
with informants.
Acculturation enabler guide was designed to
aid researcher in assessing the degree of
acculturation of a person or a group with regard to
specific culture under study.

34.  Institutional ethnography :
• Institutional ethnography was pioneered by
Dorothy Smith, a Canadian sociologist (1999). It
has been used in such field as nursing, social
work, community health, occupational therapy to
study the organization of professional services,
examined from the perspective of those who are
clients. The focus of institutional ethnography is
on social organization and institutional work
process, and so research finding have the potential
to play a role in organizational change.

35.  Auto ethnography :
• A type of ethnography that involves self-
scrutiny (including scrutiny of groups or
cultures to which researcher them selves
belong) usually it referred to as auto-
ethnography, but other term as peer group,
insider research, complete member research
have been used.

36.  PHENOMENOLOGICAL
RESEARCH METHOD :
• Phenomenology is a, “science whose purpose is to
describe particular phenomena or the appearance of
things as lived experience.” Phenomenology rooted
in a philosophical tradition developed by Husserl and
Heidegger, is an approach to exploring and
understanding people’s everyday life experiences.
• Phenomenology seeks to discover the essence and
meaning of a phenomenon as it is experience by
people, mainly through in depth interview with
people who have had the relevant experience.

37. • In descriptive phenomenology, which seeks to describe
live experience, researcher strive to bracket out
preconceived views and to intuit the essence of the
phenomenon by remaining open to meaning attribute to it
by those who have experienced it.
• Interpretive phenomenology (hermeneutics) focuses on
interpreting the meaning of experience, rather than just
describing them.
• The topic appropriate to phenomenology are one that are
fundamental to the life experience of human; for health
researcher ,these include such topics as the meaning of
suffering, the experience of domestic violence and quality
of life with chronic pain.

38. Identifying the phenomenon :
• In the phenomenological method, researcher has to
keep in mind that phenomenology is to describe fully
the lived experience of perceptions. The lived
experience means, lived space (spatiality), lived body
(corpo- reality), lived time (temporality) and human
relations (relationality). Since the lived experience is to
focus of this some dimension of day-to-day existence
for a particular group of individual. For example,the
nurse researcher may be interested in the experience of
hope for the patient who has cancer and the experience
of anger for person with heart disease.

39.  Structuring the study :
• Researcher has to address the research question,
the researcher perceptive and sample selection.
• Research question: ask the questions who carry
the lived experience. i.e. what is the experience of
hope persons who have cancer? Or how do person
who have heart disease experience anger?
• Research perceptive: the researcher identifies
personal biases about the phenomenon of interest
to clarify how personal experience and belief may
affect what is heard and reported.

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• Sample selection: phenomenological
research is usually based on written and/or
oral data gathered from a very small number
of study participants, often thorough use of
audiotape and videotapes. These enable the
researcher to analyze words, gesture, non
verbal cues, physical stances etc. Typically
phenomenological studies involve a small
number of study participants-often 10 or
fewer.

41. Data analysis :
1. Thorough reading and sensitive presence
with the entire transcription of the
participants description.
2. Identification of shifts to particular
thoughts resulting in division of the
transaction into thought segment.
3. Specification of significant phrases in
each thought segment using the words of
participants.

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4. Distillation of each significant phrase to express
the central meaning of the segment in the words
of research.
5. Preliminary synthesis of central meaning of all
thought segments for each participants with a
focus on the essence of the phenomenon being
studied.
6. Final synthesis of the essences that have surfaced
in all participants descriptions, resulting in an
exhaustive description of the lived experience.
* Six steps used in phenomenological study:

43. 1. Descriptive phenomenology :
It involves direct exploration analysis and
description of particular phenomena as free as
possible from unexplained presupposition
aiming at maximum intuitive presentation. The
four steps of descriptive phenomenology are:
1.Bracketing: It refers to the process of
identifying and holding in abeyance
preconceived beliefs and opinion about the
phenomenon under study.

44. •Ahern (1999) provide 10 tips to help
qualitative researcher with bracketing
through notes in a reflexive journal:
1. Identify interest that, as a researcher, you may
take for granted.
2. Clarify your personal value and identify areas in
which you know you are biased.
3. Identify area of possible role conflict.
4. Recognize gatekeepers’ interests and make note
of the degree to which they are favourably
dispose toward your research.
5. Identify any feeling you have that may indicate a
lack of neutrality.

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6. Describe new or surprising findings in collecting and
analyzing data.
7. Reflect on and profit from methodological problems that
occur during your research.
8. After data analysis complete, reflect on how you write up
your findings.
9. Reflect on whether the literature review is truly supporting
your findings or whether it is expressing the similar cultural
background that you have
10. Consider whether you can address any bias in your data
collection or analysis by interviewing a participant a second
time or reanalysing the transcript in question.

46. B. Intuiting :
• It requires the researcher to become totally
immersed in the phenomenon under the
investigation and the process where by the
researcher begins to know about the phenomena as
described by the participants. Intuiting involves
“researcher as instruments” in the interview
process. The researcher becomes the tool for data
collection and listens to the in descriptions of
quality of life through the interview process.

47. C.ANALYSING :
The second step is phenomenological analysing which involves
identifying the essence of the phenomenon under investigation
based on data obtained and how the data are presented. As the
researcher listens to description of quality of life and dwell with the
data. The researcher must dwell with the data as long as necessary
to ensure a pure and accurate description.
D. DESCRIBING :
The aim of describing operations is to communicate and bring to
written and verbal description distinct critical elements of the
phenomenon. The researcher must avoid tempting to describe
phenomenon prematurely and common error. Description an
intelligent part of intuiting and analysing or often occurring
simultaneously. Phenomenological describing would involve
classifying all critical elements or essence that are common to the
lived experience of quality of life.

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2. Phenomenology of essence:
Phenomenology of essence involves probing through the
data to search for common themes or essence and
establishing patterns of relationships shared by particular
phenomena. Probing for essences provides a sense for
what is essential and what is accidental in the
phenomenological description.
3. Phenomenology of appearances:
It involves giving attention to the way in which phenomena
appear. In watching the ways in which phenomena appear
the researcher pays particular attention to the different
ways in which an object present itself.

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4. Constitutive phenomenology :
It is studying phenomena as they become established or
constituted in our consciousness. Constitutive
phenomenological means the process in which the
phenomena take shape in our consciousness as we advance
from first impression to a full picture of their structure.
5 Reductive phenomenology:
It addressed as a separate process occurs concurrently
throughout a phenomenological investigation. The
researcher continually address personal biases assumptions
and purest description of the phenomenon under
investigation.

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6. Interpretive or hermeneutic phenomenology:
Interpretive frame works with in phenomenology
are used to search out the relationship and
meaning that knowledge and context have for each
other. A phenomenological appearing in text or
written word. Interpretive phenomenology is a
valuable method for the study of phenomena
relevant to nursing education. Research and
practice several investigation have used
interpretive phenomenology in areas such as
education evaluation.

51. APPLICATION OF METHOD:
Developing the research question :
• The focus of a phenomenological investigation is to
describe the meaning of the lived experience from the
perspective of the human health and illness offers a rich
source for phenomenological questions.
• Characteristics of research question:
• It should be quite and broad.
• It develops from central over reaching question and several
sub question that follows from the central question
• Phenomenological researcher avoid using hypothesis
statement so as not to away the participants toward a
desired answer.

52. Role of the Researcher
• The researcher is the instrument for data collection
and therefore must be
– Effective communicator.
– Empathetic listener.
– Establishes a good rapport with the participants.
– Attentive listener
– The researcher uses bracketing to identify
personnel biases.

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 Sample :
A phenomenological investigator requires purposive sample
composed of individuals who have experienced the phenomena
of interests. The sample size may vary but a small number of
participants are selected because of extensive documentation that
results from the participants narratives. Sample size typically
range from 5 to 15.
 Data collection :
• A variety of methods are used for data collection
• In –depth interview
• Written description of specific experience in diaries or journals.
• Observation

54. Data analysis :
• Reducing and re-reading the transcripts in their entirely.
• Identifying key statement of participants that have bearing on
the phenomena.
• Identifying and naming the themes in the identified statements.
• Identifying the essential structure of the phenomena. In the
transcribed data.
• Identifying the essential structure of the phenomena. It
involves comparing the difference and similarities in the
dialogue
• Comparing the essential structure with the data.
• Sharing the analytic description of the phenomena.

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 Review of literature:
The literature review is conducted after data collection and
analysis are complete. The purpose of literature review is to place
the study finding within the context of what is known about
phenomena.
 Reporting the findings:
Phenomenological findings report the essential structure are the
essence of the experience. The reader of the phenomenological
report should come away from the report with the better
understanding of what it is like to experience the phenomenon
that was investigated. Phenomenology is a integral field of
enquiry to nursing as well as philosophy, sociology and
psychology. As research method is a rigor science whose purpose
is to bring to language human experience.

56. GROUNDED THEORY:
Grounded theory aims to discover theoretical
precepts grounded in the data. Grounded theory
researcher try to account for the people actions by
focusing on the main concern that the individuals’
behaviour is designed to resolve. The manner in
which people resolve this main concern is the core
variable. The goal of grounded theory is to
discover this main concern and the basic social
process (BSP) that explains how people
continually resolve it.

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• Grounded theory uses constant
comparison : categories elicited from the
data are constantly compared with data
obtained earlier.
• There are two types of grounded theory :
substantive theory which is grounded in
data on a specific substantive area, and
formal grounded theory (often using data
from substantial theory study), which is at a
higher level of abstraction.

58. DEFINING GROUNDED
THEORY
• ‘The discovery of theory from data – systematically
obtained and analyzed in social research’ (Glaser &
Strauss, 1967: 1)
• ‘The methodological thrust of grounded theory is
toward the development of theory, without any
particular commitment to specific kinds of data,
lines of research, or theoretical interests Rather it
is a style of doing qualitative analysis that includes
a number of distinct features and the use of a
coding paradigm to ensure conceptual development
and density’ (Strauss, 1987)

59.  Purpose of grounded theory
• The purpose of grounded theory research
in business and management is to develop
new concepts and theories of business-
related phenomena, where these concepts
and theories are firmly grounded in
qualitative data
• It allows for the emergence of original
and rich findings that are closely tied to
the data

60.  Grounded theory and the
literature review
 As a general rule, grounded theory researchers should
make sure that they have no preconceived theoretical
ideas before starting the research
 Many people think that this means ignoring the
literature
 But this is not so - the intention is to make sure that
researchers are not constrained by literature when
coding
 Researchers should make sure that they do not impose
concepts on the data – those concepts should emerge
from the data

61.  How to do grounded theory
1. Open coding
• Summarizing some text by the use of a
concise code
• Constant comparison: constantly compare and
contrast qualitative data in the search for
similarities and differences
2. Axial coding or selective coding
– Refine the conceptual constructs
3. Theoretical coding
– The formulation of a theory

62. Critique of grounded theory
Advantages:
– It has intuitive appeal for trainee researchers, since it
allows them to become immersed in the data at a detailed
level
– It gets researchers analyzing the data early
– It encourages systematic, detailed analysis of the data and
provides a method for doing so
– It gives researchers ample evidence to back up their claims
– It encourages a constant interplay between data collection
and analysis
– It is especially useful for describing repeated processes e.g.
the communications processes between doctors and
patients, or the communications processes between
information systems analysts and users

63. Disadvantages:
– First time users can get overwhelmed at the
coding level
– Open coding takes a long time
– It can be difficult to ‘scale up’ to larger
concepts or themes
– Because it is a detailed method, it can be
difficult to see the bigger picture
– Tends to produce lower level theories only

64. Evaluating grounded theory
studies
• Is there a clear chain of evidence linking the findings to
the data?
• Are there multiple instances in the data which support
the concepts produced?
• Has the researcher demonstrated that they are very
familiar with the subject area or, as Glaser puts it, are
steeped in the field of investigation (Glaser, 1978)?
• Has the researcher created inferential and/or predictive
statements about the phenomena?
• Has the researcher suggested theoretical
generalizations that are applicable to a range of
situations?

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• Glaser and Strauss (1967) developed the systematic
approach to the study of interactions, known as the
“grounded theory method”, to bridge a perceived gap
between theory and research and consequent
undervaluing of qualitative studies. The term grounded
means that the theory that developed from the research
has its roots in the data from which it was derived.
• Grounded theory is an inductive, qualitative research
method that seek to under stand and explain human
behaviour. The emergent theory is based on, or
connected to, observation and perceptions of the social
scene.

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• The Aim of this theory is to discover underlying social
forces that shape human behaviour. This method used to
construct theory where no theory exists or in situation where
existing theory fails to explain a set of circumstances.
• The Goal of this method is the development of theory that
explains underlying social and psychological process.
• When identifying phenomenon, in this method, the
researcher are interested in social process from the
perspective of human interactions. The basic social process,
or core category that is the foundation of a theory, is often
express as grounded, indicating changing across time as
social reality is negotiated eg. Recognition of new term in
family.

67. In this method, structuring of the study
includes the following :
• Research question will be selected here as the
basic social process. In this, the research question
can be a statement or a broad question that permits
in –depth explanation of the phenomenon. They
find to be action –or change oriented. For
example, how family respond to a birth of child.
• Sample selection involves choosing participants
who are experiencing the circumstances, and
selecting events and incidents related to the social
process under investigation.

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• In this data are collected through interviews and through
skilled observation of individuals interacting in social
situations. Interviews are audio taped and then transcribed,
and observations are recorded as field notes.
• Grounded theory is characterised by the constant comparative
method, in which data collection and analysis occur
simultaneously so that all data being collected are compared
to all data previously collected to determine their importance
and position in the hierarchy of data analysis.
• The techniques for collecting and analysing data rely heavily
on skilled observation and intensive interviewing combined
with systematic detailed record keeping and simultaneous
process of data collection and analysis.

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• Data may also be collected by the use of
questionnaire from written records or any other
available data and from verbal and non-verbal
communications, all of which are examined for
their potential usefulness in the development of
‘theoretical sampling’ – sampling on the basis of
relevance for the evolving theory.
• It is used to select information about actual events,
actions, or words in the data. Concepts or abstract
are developed from the indicators.

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• Data are compared for similarities and differences and
are arranged into categories; certain data fit into other
categories. The initial analytic process is into discrete
parts, and compared for similarities and difference.
Data are compare with other data continuously as they
are acquired during research. This process called the
constant comparative method. Codes in the data are
cluster to form categories. The categories are expanded
and develop or collapsed into one another. Theory is
constructive through this systematic process. As a
result data collection, analysis and theory generation
have a direct reciprocal relationship?

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• Related literature, both technical and non technical is
reviewed continuously throughout data collection and
analysis. All literature is treated on data and is compared
with the researcher developing theory as it progress. After
criticizing of the report researchers grounded theory
formally related to and incorporate with existing
knowledge.
• Grounded theory studies are reported in sufficient detail to
provide the reader with the steps in the process and the
logic of the method. Reports of these studies use
descriptive longer age to assure that the theory reported in
the findings remains connected to the data.

72. HISTORICAL RESEARCH
• Historical research is the systematic attempt to
establish facts and relationships about past events.
Historical data are normally subjected to external
criticism, which concern the authenticity of the
source, and internal criticism which assess the worth
of the evidence.
• Historical research is the systematic collection, critical
evaluation, and interpretation of historical evidence
(i.e. data relating to past occurrence). Historical data
are usually qualitative, but sometime quantitative data
are also used(historical census data)

73.  Historical method :
• “Historical research method is the systematic compilation
of data and the critical presentation, evaluation and
interpretation of facts regarding people, events and
occurrence of the past.”
• Historical research deals with what has happened in the
past and how these events affect the present. One of the
goals of the researcher using historical methodology is to
shed light on the past so that it can guide the present and
future. Historical method embedded on philosophy, art and
science. Historical research lends itself well to nursing: no
professional group has been more in the forefront of world
history than nursing.

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• When identifying the phenomenon, the historical method
requires that the phenomenon of interest is a past event that
can be circumscribed to permit distinction from other events.
The problem to be investigated must be selected and
formulated within the context of existing knowledge and
theory.
• In structuring the study, the researcher should kept in mind
that:
• When critiquing, expect to find the research question
embedded on the phenomenon to study. The question is
implicitly rather than explicitly stated.
• Researcher’s first responsibility is to understand the
information being acquired without imposing his or her own
interpretation.

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• The researcher does this by being aware of personal biases
that may color interpretation. In historical research, sample
selection is accomplished by identifying data source. The
more clearly the researcher delineates the phenomenon, the
more specially data source can be identified. All possible
sources of data will be listed by the researcher. Data may
include written or video documents, interview with person
who witnessed the phenomenon, photograph and any antic
raft that shed light on phenomenon.
• Data source available to the historical researcher fall into
two categories: primary and secondary sources.

76.  Sources of historical research:
 Primary sources: They are those provide first hand
information obtained from original material, such as the
originals of the written documents, still pictures, paintings
and video and audio recording, eye witness accounts
provided by original documents, films, letters, diaries,
records, periodical taps.
 Secondary sources: They are those that provide
second hand interpretation of information, such as a
document written by someone who has read all article from
the time of an event that as written by some one who has
read all of the original source material and then
summarized that, as a news paper article from the time of
an event that as written by someone other than those
experienced the event.

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• Data will be analyzed first for importance and then for
validity and reliability.
• To judge importance, the researcher separates, what is –of
clear value from the mildly interesting and the
unimportant.
• Validity of document is established by external criticism.
To judge reliability, the researcher must familiarize herself
or himself with the time in which the data emerged.
• A sense of the context and language of the time is essential
to understand the document knowing the language, custom
and habits of the historical period is critical for judging
reliability.

78. Evaluating historical data:
• Historical evidence is subjected to two types of evaluation,
which historians refer to as external and internal criticism.
 External criticism: It concerned with the data’s
authenticity. External criticism would involve asking such
question as :is this the handwriting of Mr. Dix? Is the diary
paper of the right age? Are the style and ideas expressed
consistent with her other writings?
 Internal criticism: internal criticism of historical data
refers to an evaluation of the worth of the evidence. The
focus of internal criticism is not on the physical aspects of the
material but on their content. The key issue is accuracy or
truth of the data.