The urinary system functions to excrete waste from the blood, eliminate waste from other organ systems, regulate water balance and pH levels, and produce hormones. The kidneys filter blood to form urine, which travels through the ureters to the bladder and is eventually excreted through the urethra. Urine formation involves filtration, reabsorption, concentration, and secretion processes in the nephrons. Abnormal constituents in urine can indicate various kidney and urinary tract disorders.
The Excretory system is responsible for the elimination of wastes produced by homeostasis.
There are several parts of the body that are involved in this process, such as sweat glands, the liver, the lungs and the kidney system. ... From there, urine is expelled through the urethra and out of the body.
The Excretory system is responsible for the elimination of wastes produced by homeostasis.
There are several parts of the body that are involved in this process, such as sweat glands, the liver, the lungs and the kidney system. ... From there, urine is expelled through the urethra and out of the body.
A powerpoint on the Human Excretory System, intended for the SA Grade 11 Life Sciences Syllabus. Includes information on kidneys, osmoregulation, nephrons, excretion, etc. Hope it helps :)
1 . EXCRETION
Waste product removal e.g. nitrogenous – uric acid (mammals urea , fish ammonia)
Kidneys – secrete uric acid (product of protein metabolism)
Gastro-intestinal tract secretions e.g. bile
No sweat glands
Salt glands (water birds)
Water loss – lungs
2. URINARY SYSTEM
• Major organs are the kidneys, the ureter and the cloaca.
• No urinary bladder in bird.
3 . ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY
Avian kidneys are paired fitted closely the bony depression on the dorsal wall of the pelvis . Each kidney is divided into three lobes.
4 .
5 . NEPHRON
Two kinds of nephrons.
1. Reptilian nephron
2. Mammalian nephron
• 6 .
• 7. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AVIAN AND MAMMALIAN KIDNEY
8. RENAL PORTAL SYSTEM
Uric acid is formed in the liver as well as the kidneys of the birds from ammonia, which is the most toxic protein metabolic by product .
9. GLOMERULAR FILTRATION
Fluid pressure forces water and dissolved substances from glomerular blood to Bowman’s capsule .
Filtration averages 125 ml/min form two kidneys.
10 . TUBULAR REABSORPTION
Return of the useful substances from the filtrate to the blood capillaries or interstitial fluid.
11 . COUNTER CURRENT MECHANISM
This mechanism works in the loop of henle to increase water reabsorbed from the descending limb as a result of salt reabsorbed from the ascending limb .
12 . POST RENAL URINE MODIFICATION
After the presentation of urine to cloaca their might be retrograde flow or backward flow of urine into the colon.
In the colon reabsorption of excessive amount of water as well as sodium ion takes place.
13 . HORMONES RESPONSIBLE FOR URINE FORMATION
Arginine vasotocin ,Angiotensin ׀׀ ,Aldosterone ,ANP (arterial natriuretic peptide)
Aldosterone is responsible for the reabsorption of sodium and excretion of potassium in the filtrate.
A powerpoint on the Human Excretory System, intended for the SA Grade 11 Life Sciences Syllabus. Includes information on kidneys, osmoregulation, nephrons, excretion, etc. Hope it helps :)
1 . EXCRETION
Waste product removal e.g. nitrogenous – uric acid (mammals urea , fish ammonia)
Kidneys – secrete uric acid (product of protein metabolism)
Gastro-intestinal tract secretions e.g. bile
No sweat glands
Salt glands (water birds)
Water loss – lungs
2. URINARY SYSTEM
• Major organs are the kidneys, the ureter and the cloaca.
• No urinary bladder in bird.
3 . ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE OF KIDNEY
Avian kidneys are paired fitted closely the bony depression on the dorsal wall of the pelvis . Each kidney is divided into three lobes.
4 .
5 . NEPHRON
Two kinds of nephrons.
1. Reptilian nephron
2. Mammalian nephron
• 6 .
• 7. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN AVIAN AND MAMMALIAN KIDNEY
8. RENAL PORTAL SYSTEM
Uric acid is formed in the liver as well as the kidneys of the birds from ammonia, which is the most toxic protein metabolic by product .
9. GLOMERULAR FILTRATION
Fluid pressure forces water and dissolved substances from glomerular blood to Bowman’s capsule .
Filtration averages 125 ml/min form two kidneys.
10 . TUBULAR REABSORPTION
Return of the useful substances from the filtrate to the blood capillaries or interstitial fluid.
11 . COUNTER CURRENT MECHANISM
This mechanism works in the loop of henle to increase water reabsorbed from the descending limb as a result of salt reabsorbed from the ascending limb .
12 . POST RENAL URINE MODIFICATION
After the presentation of urine to cloaca their might be retrograde flow or backward flow of urine into the colon.
In the colon reabsorption of excessive amount of water as well as sodium ion takes place.
13 . HORMONES RESPONSIBLE FOR URINE FORMATION
Arginine vasotocin ,Angiotensin ׀׀ ,Aldosterone ,ANP (arterial natriuretic peptide)
Aldosterone is responsible for the reabsorption of sodium and excretion of potassium in the filtrate.
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As adults,we know that procrastination can be one of the
biggest killers of productivity. Teachers can help their students overcome this unhelpful habit early so that they can live up to their potential in the classroom and beyond! help for you...i hope its useful to you and best luck...........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
we know that procrastination can be one of the biggest killers of productivity. Teachers can help their students overcome this unhelpful habit early so that they can live up to their potential in the classroom and beyond!,,best of luck to all........help for you
the beautiful thing about learning is that no one can take it away from you...so study and hard .....i hope it is helpful to you and its useful for study...best of luck
Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
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TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
TEST BANK for Operations Management, 14th Edition by William J. Stevenson, Verified Chapters 1 - 19, Complete Newest Version.pdf
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
These simplified slides by Dr. Sidra Arshad present an overview of the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract.
Learning objectives:
1. Enlist the non-respiratory functions of the respiratory tract
2. Briefly explain how these functions are carried out
3. Discuss the significance of dead space
4. Differentiate between minute ventilation and alveolar ventilation
5. Describe the cough and sneeze reflexes
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 39, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 34, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
3. Chapter 17, Human Physiology by Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
4. Non-respiratory functions of the lungs https://academic.oup.com/bjaed/article/13/3/98/278874
Ethanol (CH3CH2OH), or beverage alcohol, is a two-carbon alcohol
that is rapidly distributed in the body and brain. Ethanol alters many
neurochemical systems and has rewarding and addictive properties. It
is the oldest recreational drug and likely contributes to more morbidity,
mortality, and public health costs than all illicit drugs combined. The
5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
(DSM-5) integrates alcohol abuse and alcohol dependence into a single
disorder called alcohol use disorder (AUD), with mild, moderate,
and severe subclassifications (American Psychiatric Association, 2013).
In the DSM-5, all types of substance abuse and dependence have been
combined into a single substance use disorder (SUD) on a continuum
from mild to severe. A diagnosis of AUD requires that at least two of
the 11 DSM-5 behaviors be present within a 12-month period (mild
AUD: 2–3 criteria; moderate AUD: 4–5 criteria; severe AUD: 6–11 criteria).
The four main behavioral effects of AUD are impaired control over
drinking, negative social consequences, risky use, and altered physiological
effects (tolerance, withdrawal). This chapter presents an overview
of the prevalence and harmful consequences of AUD in the U.S.,
the systemic nature of the disease, neurocircuitry and stages of AUD,
comorbidities, fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, genetic risk factors, and
pharmacotherapies for AUD.
The prostate is an exocrine gland of the male mammalian reproductive system
It is a walnut-sized gland that forms part of the male reproductive system and is located in front of the rectum and just below the urinary bladder
Function is to store and secrete a clear, slightly alkaline fluid that constitutes 10-30% of the volume of the seminal fluid that along with the spermatozoa, constitutes semen
A healthy human prostate measures (4cm-vertical, by 3cm-horizontal, 2cm ant-post ).
It surrounds the urethra just below the urinary bladder. It has anterior, median, posterior and two lateral lobes
It’s work is regulated by androgens which are responsible for male sex characteristics
Generalised disease of the prostate due to hormonal derangement which leads to non malignant enlargement of the gland (increase in the number of epithelial cells and stromal tissue)to cause compression of the urethra leading to symptoms (LUTS
Report Back from SGO 2024: What’s the Latest in Cervical Cancer?bkling
Are you curious about what’s new in cervical cancer research or unsure what the findings mean? Join Dr. Emily Ko, a gynecologic oncologist at Penn Medicine, to learn about the latest updates from the Society of Gynecologic Oncology (SGO) 2024 Annual Meeting on Women’s Cancer. Dr. Ko will discuss what the research presented at the conference means for you and answer your questions about the new developments.
These lecture slides, by Dr Sidra Arshad, offer a quick overview of physiological basis of a normal electrocardiogram.
Learning objectives:
1. Define an electrocardiogram (ECG) and electrocardiography
2. Describe how dipoles generated by the heart produce the waveforms of the ECG
3. Describe the components of a normal electrocardiogram of a typical bipolar leads (limb II)
4. Differentiate between intervals and segments
5. Enlist some common indications for obtaining an ECG
Study Resources:
1. Chapter 11, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 14th edition
2. Chapter 9, Human Physiology - From Cells to Systems, Lauralee Sherwood, 9th edition
3. Chapter 29, Ganong’s Review of Medical Physiology, 26th edition
4. Electrocardiogram, StatPearls - https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549803/
5. ECG in Medical Practice by ABM Abdullah, 4th edition
6. ECG Basics, http://www.nataliescasebook.com/tag/e-c-g-basics
Ozempic: Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists Saeid Safari
Preoperative Management of Patients on GLP-1 Receptor Agonists like Ozempic and Semiglutide
ASA GUIDELINE
NYSORA Guideline
2 Case Reports of Gastric Ultrasound
micro teaching on communication m.sc nursing.pdfAnurag Sharma
Microteaching is a unique model of practice teaching. It is a viable instrument for the. desired change in the teaching behavior or the behavior potential which, in specified types of real. classroom situations, tends to facilitate the achievement of specified types of objectives.
Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
2. FUNCTIONS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
Excretion – removal of waste material from the blood plasma and the disposal of this waste in the urine.
Elimination – removal of waste from other organ systems- from digestive system – undigested food,
water, salt, ions and drugs.- from respiratory system – CO2, H+- from respiratory system – CO , water,
toxins. 2, H , water, toxins.- from skin – water, NaCl, nitrogenous wastes (urea , uric acid, ammonia,
creatinine).
Water balance -- kidney tubules regulate water reabsorption and urine concentration.
Regulation of PH, volume, and composition of body fluids.
Production of Erythropoietin for hemato-poieseis, and renin for blood pressure regulation.
3.
4. ANATOMY
OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
Gross anatomy:
kidneys – a pair of bean –shaped organs located
retro-peritoneally, responsible for blood filtering
and urine formation.
Renal capsule – a layer of fibrous connective
tissue covering the kidneys.
Renal cortex – outer region of the kidneys where
most nephrons is located.
Renal medulla – inner region of the kidneys where
some nephrons is located, also where urine is
collected to be excreted outward.
5. Renal calyx – duct – like sections of renal medulla
for collecting urine from nephrons and direct urine
into renal pelvis.
•Renal pyramid –connective tissues in the renal
medulla binding various structures together.
Renal pelvis – central urine collecting area of renal
medulla.
Hilum (or hilus) – concave notch of kidneys where
renal artery, renal vein, urethra, nerves, and
lymphatic vessels converge.
6. Ureter – a tubule that transport urine (mainly by
peristalsis) from the kidney to the urinary bladder.
Urinary bladder – aspherical storage organ that
contains up to 400 ml of urine.
Urethra – a tubule that excretes urine out of the
urinary bladder to the outside, through the urethral
orifice.
7. MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY:
each kidney consists of about 1 million basic functional units called nephrons where blood filtering and
urine formation occur.
each nephron is composed of the following parts –afferent arteriole → glomerulus →Bowman's capsule
→proximal convoluted tubule (PCT) →descending limb of loop of Henle loop of Henle → ascending limb
of loop of henle ascending limb of loop of henle → distal convoluted tubule(DCT) → collecting duct (not
a part of nephron).
molecules in the blood that will be transformed to become part of urine travel through the above
structures to be processed(some of these molecules will be reabsorbed), while molecules that will be
retained and reabsorbed back to the blood will come out of the bowman's capsule, and go in to efferent
arteriole and the peri tubular capillaries.
8.
9.
10.
11. URINE FORMATION
1. During rest, about 15-30% of cardiac output (CO) enters the kidneys.
2. Circulation through the kidneys (blood cells and plasma proteins follow the following pathway, while
smaller substances will be filtered into renal tubules and are mostly reabsorbed).aorta → renal artery →
interlobular arteries → afferent arterioles→ glomeruli → efferent arterioles → peri tubular capillaries
→interlobular veins → renal vein → inferior vena cava.
3. 80% of all nephrons is located in the renal cortex and called cortical nephrons which contain shorter
loops of henle (for less efficient water reabsorption), while the remaining 20% of nephrons is located
between renal cortex and medulla and called juxtamedullary nephrons which contain longer loops of
henle(for efficient water reabsorption).
12.
13. Vasa recta: efferent arterioles of the juxta
medullary nephron form a unique bundle of
straight vessels, called the vasa recta.
14. 4. urine formation involves 4processes:
filtration – small molecules are filtered from
glomerulus to bowman's capsule.
reabsorption – nutrient molecules are
transported from PCT and DCT to peri tubular
capillaries.
concentration – water is reabsorbed from
descending limb of loop of henle and from
collecting duct in to peritubular capillaries.
secretion – waste or harmful substances are
transported from peritubular capillaries to PCT
and DCT.
15. Juxta glomerular Apparatus (JGA)
Macula densa – epithelial cells of the distal
convulated tubule that are densely packed. These
cells are chemo and osmo receptors that detect
changes in solute concentration and blood
pressure.
Juxta glomerular cells (Granular cells) – large
cells in the wall of the afferent arterioles that
secrete renin and act as mechanoreceptor. Renin
plays an important role in control of blood
pressure.
16. COMPOSITION OF URINE
– transparency is clear, indicating the lack of large solutes such as plasma proteins or blood cells [can be
influenced by bacterial metabolism in older urine samples].
– Color is from light yellow to amber, due to uro chrome pigments as by product of bile metabolism [can be
influenced by food, menstrual bleeding, and metabolic products].
– Odor is from aromatic to slightly ammonia – like, due to the nitrogenous wastes in urine [can be influenced
by disorders such as diabetes, or by food such as garlic, and by drugs].
– pH is from 4.6 to 8.0 with an average of 6.0, due to H+ in the urine[strongly influenced by diet where protein
cause acidic urine, and vegetables and wheat cause alkaline urine].
– Specific gravity (a measurement of dissolved solutes in a solution)is from 1.001 to 1.035, due to the 5%
solute composition in normal urine.
17. – Volume is 1-2 liters per day (about 1% of filtration input).
[can be influenced by body activities, water intake,
hormonal regulation, or disorders such as diabetes].
• chemical composition of urine:
- normal urine is 95% water and 5% solutes.
- most solutes are derived from cellular metabolism, and
they include urea, uric acid, creatinine, ketene bodies,
salts, ions, excessive vitamins, and drugs.
18. ABNORMAL CONSTITUENTS OF URINE
– albumin – a large plasma protein that should not be filtered out of glomerulus; when it is present, it is
called albuminuria which may be due to kidney infection called glomerulo nephritis.
– glucose – a nutrient molecules that should have been reabsorbed (in the case of high carbohydrate
diets, trace amount of glucose may be found in urine); when is present, it is called glucosuria which may
be due to insulin – related problems in a disease called diabetes mellitus.
– blood or erythrocytes – any blood cell should not be filtered out of glomerulus or be present in the
urine (except in menstruation – related bleeding); when it is present, it is called Hematuria which may be
caused by glomerulo nephritis, hemolytic anemia, or urinary tract in infections (UTI).
19. – hemoglobin – pigment protein that normally should be enclosed in erythrocytes and not filtered out of
glomerulus; when it is present, it is called hemoglobin. uria which may indicated hemolytic anemia.
– leukocytes – large white blood cells that should not be present in urine (except in UTI where
leukocytes are present to fight the infection); when it is present, it is called Pyuria which may be caused
by glomerulo nephritis, UTI, or even strenuous exercise.
– ketones – byproduct of metabolism that may occur in trace amounts, but not large quantities in the
urine; when it is present, it is called Ketonuria which may indicate certain infections in the urinary
system.
– Bilirubin – a bile pigment that is normally recycled in lipid metabolism; when it is present, it is called
bilirubin. uria which may be due to abnormal lipid metabolism, or certain infections in the urinary system.
20. MICTURITION
elimination of urine from the urinary system to the outside.
pathway of waste molecules: afferent arteriole glomerulus Bowman’s capsule proximal convoluted
tubule loop of henle distal convoluted tubule collecting duct renal calyx renal pelvis ureter urinary
bladder urethral orifice.
middle layer of urethra wall is made of smooth muscle, which performs peristalsis under involuntary
control, to push urine from the kidney to urinary bladder.
urinary bladder contains elastic tissues in its walls and normally holds200-400 ml of urine, or maximally
up to 600 ml.
micturition involves the contraction of detrusor muscles that surround the urinary bladder and the
relaxation of external urethral sphincter.
21. At the bladder-urethral junction a thickening of the detrusor smooth muscle forms the internal urethral
sphincter which keeps urethra closed when urine is not being passed and prevents leaking between
voiding.
Parasympathetic nerves stimulate contraction of detrusor muscles forcing urine into urethra.
Voluntary contraction of external urethral sphincter (which is made up of skeletal muscles) allows urine
to flow outside.
22.
23. CLINICAL TERMS
Cystectomy: surgical removal of the urinary bladder.
Dysuria: painful or difficult urination.
Hematuria: blood in the urine.
Nephrectomy: surgical removal of a kidney.
Acute glomerulo nephritis: inflammation of the glomeruli.
Uremia: condition in which substances ordinarily excreted in the urine accumulates in the blood.
Incontinence: inability to control urination.
Urinalysis: analysis of urine to diagnose health or disease (to detect protein, glucose, blood or pus).
Urologist: physician who specializes in diseases of the urinary structures in both male and female.