Terrain evaluation involves assessing land for its suitability for various purposes by analyzing characteristics like topography, soil, geology, and land use. It is important for infrastructure projects, urban planning, hazard management, and other land-based development activities. A standardized terrain classification system is needed that can accurately categorize and describe terrain quantitatively using measurable parameters to allow for objective evaluation and comparisons. A combined geomorphological and parametric approach is best for semi-detailed and detailed terrain evaluation.
Groundwater province is an area or region in which geology and climate combine to produce groundwater conditions consistent enough to permit useful generalisations.
This document discusses basin morphometry, which involves quantitatively measuring the shape and geometry of drainage basins. It describes various linear, aerial, and relief properties that are measured, such as stream order, length, and number, drainage density, basin area and relief. These morphometric properties provide insights into surface processes, tectonic activity, and hydrological characteristics like flooding and sediment yield. Quantifying basin morphology allows comparisons between basins and improved modeling of terrain and hydrological systems.
The document discusses the concept of geosynclines, which refers to thick piles of sediments deposited in deep marine basins that were later compressed, deformed, and uplifted to form mountain ranges. Geosynclines developed in three phases - first sediments accumulated in a subsiding trough (geosynclinal phase), then the deeply buried sediments folded under heat and pressure (tectonic phase), and finally horizontal compression forces uplifted the folded rocks to form mountains tens of thousands of meters high (orogenic phase). Geosynclines are classified as orthgeosynclines like eugeosynclines that formed far from continents with volcanic rocks, or parageosynclines like miogeosyn
The document summarizes the major cratons found in India, including the Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum, Bundelkhand, and Aravalli cratons. It describes the geographic distribution, rock types, ages, and tectonic evolution of each craton. Key events in the evolution of the Indian cratons included continental crust formation over 3 billion years ago, greenstone belt formation and granite intrusion between 2.8-2.5 billion years ago, and collision and deformation between 3-2 billion years ago.
it is highly useful for geography students in the field of remote sensing and it is in very simple and explanatory for the purpose of simplification with relevant images in this ppt.
The document provides information on the Gondwana Supergroup, a geological formation found in India. It discusses the distribution, lithology, stratigraphic classification, and economic significance of the Gondwana Supergroup. The formation consists of 6-7 km of fluviatile and lacustrine deposits, including sandstones, shales, clays, conglomerates and coal seams. It is divided into lower and upper divisions based on fossil evidence. Major coal deposits are found in the Barakar and Raniganj formations, and iron ore, clay and building stone are also economically extracted from the Gondwana Supergroup.
The Stratigraphic Code establishes rules for naming and defining stratigraphic units. There are two versions of the code from the North American and International commissions. Stratigraphic units are categorized based on physical characteristics and time, and include lithostratigraphic, biostratigraphic, magnetostratigraphic, and others. Proper naming of a new unit requires publication and establishing type sections and boundaries.
The document summarizes the Cudappah Supergroup, an important Proterozoic sedimentary basin in India. It describes the basin's lithostratigraphy, which includes groups like the Papaghni, Chitravati, Nallamalai, and Srisailam quartzites. The basin provides economic resources like barytes, chrysotile, asbestos, steatite, diamonds, uranium, and building/ornamental stones. Radiometric dating indicates the basin formed between 1500-1800 million years ago. The Cudappah Supergroup is a significant paleo-Mesoproterozoic basin that records much of India's early geological history.
Groundwater province is an area or region in which geology and climate combine to produce groundwater conditions consistent enough to permit useful generalisations.
This document discusses basin morphometry, which involves quantitatively measuring the shape and geometry of drainage basins. It describes various linear, aerial, and relief properties that are measured, such as stream order, length, and number, drainage density, basin area and relief. These morphometric properties provide insights into surface processes, tectonic activity, and hydrological characteristics like flooding and sediment yield. Quantifying basin morphology allows comparisons between basins and improved modeling of terrain and hydrological systems.
The document discusses the concept of geosynclines, which refers to thick piles of sediments deposited in deep marine basins that were later compressed, deformed, and uplifted to form mountain ranges. Geosynclines developed in three phases - first sediments accumulated in a subsiding trough (geosynclinal phase), then the deeply buried sediments folded under heat and pressure (tectonic phase), and finally horizontal compression forces uplifted the folded rocks to form mountains tens of thousands of meters high (orogenic phase). Geosynclines are classified as orthgeosynclines like eugeosynclines that formed far from continents with volcanic rocks, or parageosynclines like miogeosyn
The document summarizes the major cratons found in India, including the Dharwar, Bastar, Singhbhum, Bundelkhand, and Aravalli cratons. It describes the geographic distribution, rock types, ages, and tectonic evolution of each craton. Key events in the evolution of the Indian cratons included continental crust formation over 3 billion years ago, greenstone belt formation and granite intrusion between 2.8-2.5 billion years ago, and collision and deformation between 3-2 billion years ago.
it is highly useful for geography students in the field of remote sensing and it is in very simple and explanatory for the purpose of simplification with relevant images in this ppt.
The document provides information on the Gondwana Supergroup, a geological formation found in India. It discusses the distribution, lithology, stratigraphic classification, and economic significance of the Gondwana Supergroup. The formation consists of 6-7 km of fluviatile and lacustrine deposits, including sandstones, shales, clays, conglomerates and coal seams. It is divided into lower and upper divisions based on fossil evidence. Major coal deposits are found in the Barakar and Raniganj formations, and iron ore, clay and building stone are also economically extracted from the Gondwana Supergroup.
The Stratigraphic Code establishes rules for naming and defining stratigraphic units. There are two versions of the code from the North American and International commissions. Stratigraphic units are categorized based on physical characteristics and time, and include lithostratigraphic, biostratigraphic, magnetostratigraphic, and others. Proper naming of a new unit requires publication and establishing type sections and boundaries.
The document summarizes the Cudappah Supergroup, an important Proterozoic sedimentary basin in India. It describes the basin's lithostratigraphy, which includes groups like the Papaghni, Chitravati, Nallamalai, and Srisailam quartzites. The basin provides economic resources like barytes, chrysotile, asbestos, steatite, diamonds, uranium, and building/ornamental stones. Radiometric dating indicates the basin formed between 1500-1800 million years ago. The Cudappah Supergroup is a significant paleo-Mesoproterozoic basin that records much of India's early geological history.
The document discusses the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary, which saw major biotic changes like the emergence and extinction of soft-bodied Ediacaran fauna and the emergence of organisms with hard parts. Trace fossils from this period provide important stratigraphic information. In India, sections in Kashmir and Spiti Valley contain microbiota and trace fossils that help delineate the boundary. The Precambrian-Cambrian transition witnessed an evolutionary explosion of life and the emergence of many new animal phyla. Detailed study of sections in the Himalayas continues to provide insights into this important period in Earth's history.
This document summarizes the stratigraphy of the Cretaceous sediments in the Trichinopoly district of Tamil Nadu, India. It divides the sediments into four groups from oldest to youngest: Uttatur Group, Trichinopoly Group, Ariyalur Group, and Niniyur Formation. Each group contains multiple formations characterized by their lithology, thickness, fossil content, and age. The sediments were deposited in marine environments from the Aptian to early Paleocene stages and include limestones, sandstones, shales, and shell beds. Fossils found include ammonites, bivalves, wood, and dinosaur remains, providing insights into the paleoenvironment and basin evolution.
Boundary problems between :-
Precambrian/Cambrian
Permian/Triassic
Cretaceous/Tertiary
Neogene/Quaternary
Stratigraphic boundaries are determined by one or more of geological events such as volcanic activity, sedimentation, tectonism, paleo-environments & evolution of life.
Faunal records have played major role in determining the boundaries of the Phanerozoic units.
The other geological events are dated on the evidence of fossil records.
1. The document discusses concepts in geophysics including isostasy, density, susceptibility, and resistivity of rocks. Isostasy refers to equilibrium between the earth's lithosphere and asthenosphere. Density is a measure of how tightly packed molecules are in a material. Susceptibility measures a material's magnetization in response to an external magnetic field. Resistivity quantifies a material's opposition to electric current flow.
2. Igneous rocks generally have higher density, susceptibility, and resistivity compared to metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. This is because igneous rocks contain more mafic minerals and have undergone less alteration from their original state than other rock types. Factors like pore space,
Lithostratigraphic units Geology By Misson Choudhury Misson Choudhury
Misson Choudhury, Budding Geologists ,graduated from utkal university odisha,now pursuing M.sc applied geology in Bangalore university ..love to geologic mapping,drawing ,climbing ,tracking..
Geochemical cycle and mobility of elementsPramoda Raj
The document discusses geochemical concepts relevant to mineral exploration, including the geochemical environment, cycle, dispersion, and mobility of elements. It describes the deep-seated and surfacial environments and how materials move between them in the geochemical cycle. Mobility depends on factors like viscosity and particle size. Hypogene mobility occurs under high pressure-temperature conditions, while supergene mobility is influenced by siliceous or sulfide environments at the surface. Indicator and pathfinder elements are discussed for detecting targeted ore deposits.
The document summarizes the Jurassic stratigraphy of the Kutch region in India. It describes the key geological formations that date from the Middle Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous periods, including the Pachcham Formation consisting of limestones and corals, the Chari Formation containing sandy limestones and marls, the Katrol Formation made up of shales, limestones and sandstones, and the Umia Formation comprising sandstone, shale and conglomerate. It provides context that these sedimentary rocks formed during a phase of marine transgression in the western part of India during the Jurassic Period.
After attending this lesson, the user would be able to understand the basic characteristics of the submarine canyons, their origin, and their distribution in various major oceans of the world.
Detailed information about the morphological conditions, sedimentology and marine life of the submarine canyons will also be understood.
The Bastar Craton in central India covers an area of 130,000 square km and contains several important lithotectonic units from over 3 billion years ago. It is bounded by graben structures and mobile belts. The oldest unit is the Sukma Group dating to 3000 million years ago consisting of gneisses and iron formations. Younger granulite belts and sedimentary sequences include the Amgaon Group, Bengpal Group, and Sakoli Group indicating deposition between 2500-2600 million years ago. The Kotri-Dongargarh orogen contains the Bailadila iron formations and associated volcanic sequences like the Nandgaon Group dating to 2300 million years ago.
This document provides an overview of the Siwalik Group, a Tertiary sedimentary formation stretching from Pakistan to Myanmar along the Himalayan foothills. It discusses the stratigraphy, sedimentation, distribution, and fossil flora and fauna of the Siwalik Group. The Siwalik Group is divided into Lower, Middle, and Upper units based on correlation of fossil fauna to Europe. It is known for its wealth of vertebrate fossils, including hominoids. The document also describes the distribution and characteristics of the Siwalik Group in various regions in India.
This document discusses remote sensing platforms and sensors. It describes the different types of orbits used by remote sensing satellites, including low Earth orbit, sun synchronous orbit, and geostationary orbit. It also outlines the various platforms that can be used, such as ground-based, airborne, and space-borne. Finally, it examines the characteristics of remote sensing sensors, including spatial, spectral, radiometric, and temporal resolution.
Graptolites is an important index fossil for Paleozoic rocks and common throughout the world. As in Pakistan the sequences from the Ordovician to carboniferous age missing but these strata are exist in Noshehra and Chitral, so thats why its more valuable as regional fossil of sub-continent.
Groundwater levels fluctuate due to various factors. Secular variations occur over years due to changes in storage and recharge/discharge amounts. Seasonal variations result from rainfall and irrigation on well-defined cycles. Diurnal variations happen within a day due to tidal effects. Other causes of groundwater level changes include stream flows, evaporation, transpiration, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, ocean tides, earth tides, external loads, earthquakes, urbanization, volcanic eruptions, roads, and continental drift.
Applications of micro-fossil in bio statigraphy Pramoda Raj
This document provides an overview of biostratigraphy and microfossils. It defines biostratigraphy as using fossils to determine the relative age of rock strata. Microfossils, which are fossils less than 0.5mm in size, are commonly used for biostratigraphy. Various types of microfossils like foraminifera, radiolaria, and diatoms are described. Biostratigraphic units defined by fossil occurrences like zones, assemblage zones, and interval zones are also outlined. The document discusses uses of biostratigraphy in fields like stratigraphy, correlation, and sequence stratigraphy. Microfossils are concluded to be very useful for reconstructing past environments from deep sea sediments and in the
This document provides an introduction to sequence stratigraphy, which attempts to subdivide and explain sedimentary deposits in terms of variations in sediment supply and accommodation space associated with sea level changes. It defines key terms like parasequence, progradation, retrogradation, transgression, and regression. It also describes the accommodation space equation and causes of changes in sea level and tectonic subsidence. Finally, it discusses sequence stratigraphic concepts like depositional sequences, system tracts, stacking patterns, and sequence boundaries.
Classification either on quality or type based for groundwater can offer great advantages especially in regional groundwater management. It provides a short, quick processing, interpretation for a lot of complete hydro-chemical data sets and concise presentation of the results. There is a demonstrable need for a quality assurance, with the advanced usage of world's largest fresh water storage i.e Ground water. Its getting depleted over the years and the quality of the same degrading with a rapid pace. Ground water Quality is assessed mainly by the chemical analysis of samples. The data obtained from the chemical analysis is key for the further classification, analysis, correlation etc. Graphical and Numerical interpretation of the data is the main source for Hydro-chemical studies. In this paper we test the performance of the many available graphical and statistical methodologies used to classify water samples including: Collins bar diagram, Stiff pattern diagram, Schoeller plot, Piper diagram, Durov's Double Triangular Diagram, Gibbs's Diagram, Stuyfzand Classification. This paper explains various models which classify, correlate etc., summarizing the water quality data. The basic graphs and diagrams in each category are explained by sample diagrams. In addition to the diagrams an overall characterization of hydro-chemical facies of the water can be carried out by using plots which represents a water type and hardness domain. The combination of graphical and statistical techniques provides a consistent and objective means to classify large numbers of samples while retaining the ease of classic graphical presentation.
The document summarizes the tectonic framework of India in 3 broad divisions - Peninsular India, Extra-Peninsular India, and the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Peninsular India comprises the Indian shield and its sedimentary basins, and is further divided into the shield areas, mobile belts, and Proterozoic sedimentary basins. Extra-Peninsular India includes the Himalayan mountain ranges, divided into the Lesser Himalayan zone, Central Crystalline zone, and Tethyan zone. The Indo-Gangetic Plain is a deep crustal trough in northern India filled with Quaternary sediments.
Geomorphology and its application to hydrogeologysuchi4
The document discusses various aspects of fluvial geomorphology and their implications for hydrology, including:
1) Descriptions of different channel patterns such as braided, meandering, and anastomosing and the hydrological conditions associated with each.
2) Landforms such as alluvial fans, natural levees, and deltas that form at the interface between rivers and floodplains and influence hydrology.
3) How the geomorphology of limestone terrain, such as the presence of joints and solution features, impacts permeability and hydrology.
4) Several assessment methods for evaluating environmental flows, sediment impacts, and wetland functioning from a watershed perspective.
Highway engineering is an engineering discipline branching out from civil engineering. This subject involves the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of roads, bridges, and tunnels to ensure safe and effective transportation of people and goods. There are certain geological conditions which should be considered while laying the highways. This module give those details in general.
This document provides an overview of the syllabus for a Basic Civil Engineering course. The syllabus covers 5 units: building materials, building components, planning aspects and regulations, water supply and sanitary systems, and surveying and transportation. For the unit on surveying and transportation, the document defines surveying and its objectives and principles, and classifies surveying based on nature, objective, and instruments used. It also defines various modes of transportation like roadways, railways, and waterways, describing their typical cross-sections, components, and classifications.
The document discusses the Precambrian-Cambrian boundary, which saw major biotic changes like the emergence and extinction of soft-bodied Ediacaran fauna and the emergence of organisms with hard parts. Trace fossils from this period provide important stratigraphic information. In India, sections in Kashmir and Spiti Valley contain microbiota and trace fossils that help delineate the boundary. The Precambrian-Cambrian transition witnessed an evolutionary explosion of life and the emergence of many new animal phyla. Detailed study of sections in the Himalayas continues to provide insights into this important period in Earth's history.
This document summarizes the stratigraphy of the Cretaceous sediments in the Trichinopoly district of Tamil Nadu, India. It divides the sediments into four groups from oldest to youngest: Uttatur Group, Trichinopoly Group, Ariyalur Group, and Niniyur Formation. Each group contains multiple formations characterized by their lithology, thickness, fossil content, and age. The sediments were deposited in marine environments from the Aptian to early Paleocene stages and include limestones, sandstones, shales, and shell beds. Fossils found include ammonites, bivalves, wood, and dinosaur remains, providing insights into the paleoenvironment and basin evolution.
Boundary problems between :-
Precambrian/Cambrian
Permian/Triassic
Cretaceous/Tertiary
Neogene/Quaternary
Stratigraphic boundaries are determined by one or more of geological events such as volcanic activity, sedimentation, tectonism, paleo-environments & evolution of life.
Faunal records have played major role in determining the boundaries of the Phanerozoic units.
The other geological events are dated on the evidence of fossil records.
1. The document discusses concepts in geophysics including isostasy, density, susceptibility, and resistivity of rocks. Isostasy refers to equilibrium between the earth's lithosphere and asthenosphere. Density is a measure of how tightly packed molecules are in a material. Susceptibility measures a material's magnetization in response to an external magnetic field. Resistivity quantifies a material's opposition to electric current flow.
2. Igneous rocks generally have higher density, susceptibility, and resistivity compared to metamorphic and sedimentary rocks. This is because igneous rocks contain more mafic minerals and have undergone less alteration from their original state than other rock types. Factors like pore space,
Lithostratigraphic units Geology By Misson Choudhury Misson Choudhury
Misson Choudhury, Budding Geologists ,graduated from utkal university odisha,now pursuing M.sc applied geology in Bangalore university ..love to geologic mapping,drawing ,climbing ,tracking..
Geochemical cycle and mobility of elementsPramoda Raj
The document discusses geochemical concepts relevant to mineral exploration, including the geochemical environment, cycle, dispersion, and mobility of elements. It describes the deep-seated and surfacial environments and how materials move between them in the geochemical cycle. Mobility depends on factors like viscosity and particle size. Hypogene mobility occurs under high pressure-temperature conditions, while supergene mobility is influenced by siliceous or sulfide environments at the surface. Indicator and pathfinder elements are discussed for detecting targeted ore deposits.
The document summarizes the Jurassic stratigraphy of the Kutch region in India. It describes the key geological formations that date from the Middle Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous periods, including the Pachcham Formation consisting of limestones and corals, the Chari Formation containing sandy limestones and marls, the Katrol Formation made up of shales, limestones and sandstones, and the Umia Formation comprising sandstone, shale and conglomerate. It provides context that these sedimentary rocks formed during a phase of marine transgression in the western part of India during the Jurassic Period.
After attending this lesson, the user would be able to understand the basic characteristics of the submarine canyons, their origin, and their distribution in various major oceans of the world.
Detailed information about the morphological conditions, sedimentology and marine life of the submarine canyons will also be understood.
The Bastar Craton in central India covers an area of 130,000 square km and contains several important lithotectonic units from over 3 billion years ago. It is bounded by graben structures and mobile belts. The oldest unit is the Sukma Group dating to 3000 million years ago consisting of gneisses and iron formations. Younger granulite belts and sedimentary sequences include the Amgaon Group, Bengpal Group, and Sakoli Group indicating deposition between 2500-2600 million years ago. The Kotri-Dongargarh orogen contains the Bailadila iron formations and associated volcanic sequences like the Nandgaon Group dating to 2300 million years ago.
This document provides an overview of the Siwalik Group, a Tertiary sedimentary formation stretching from Pakistan to Myanmar along the Himalayan foothills. It discusses the stratigraphy, sedimentation, distribution, and fossil flora and fauna of the Siwalik Group. The Siwalik Group is divided into Lower, Middle, and Upper units based on correlation of fossil fauna to Europe. It is known for its wealth of vertebrate fossils, including hominoids. The document also describes the distribution and characteristics of the Siwalik Group in various regions in India.
This document discusses remote sensing platforms and sensors. It describes the different types of orbits used by remote sensing satellites, including low Earth orbit, sun synchronous orbit, and geostationary orbit. It also outlines the various platforms that can be used, such as ground-based, airborne, and space-borne. Finally, it examines the characteristics of remote sensing sensors, including spatial, spectral, radiometric, and temporal resolution.
Graptolites is an important index fossil for Paleozoic rocks and common throughout the world. As in Pakistan the sequences from the Ordovician to carboniferous age missing but these strata are exist in Noshehra and Chitral, so thats why its more valuable as regional fossil of sub-continent.
Groundwater levels fluctuate due to various factors. Secular variations occur over years due to changes in storage and recharge/discharge amounts. Seasonal variations result from rainfall and irrigation on well-defined cycles. Diurnal variations happen within a day due to tidal effects. Other causes of groundwater level changes include stream flows, evaporation, transpiration, atmospheric pressure, wind, rainfall, ocean tides, earth tides, external loads, earthquakes, urbanization, volcanic eruptions, roads, and continental drift.
Applications of micro-fossil in bio statigraphy Pramoda Raj
This document provides an overview of biostratigraphy and microfossils. It defines biostratigraphy as using fossils to determine the relative age of rock strata. Microfossils, which are fossils less than 0.5mm in size, are commonly used for biostratigraphy. Various types of microfossils like foraminifera, radiolaria, and diatoms are described. Biostratigraphic units defined by fossil occurrences like zones, assemblage zones, and interval zones are also outlined. The document discusses uses of biostratigraphy in fields like stratigraphy, correlation, and sequence stratigraphy. Microfossils are concluded to be very useful for reconstructing past environments from deep sea sediments and in the
This document provides an introduction to sequence stratigraphy, which attempts to subdivide and explain sedimentary deposits in terms of variations in sediment supply and accommodation space associated with sea level changes. It defines key terms like parasequence, progradation, retrogradation, transgression, and regression. It also describes the accommodation space equation and causes of changes in sea level and tectonic subsidence. Finally, it discusses sequence stratigraphic concepts like depositional sequences, system tracts, stacking patterns, and sequence boundaries.
Classification either on quality or type based for groundwater can offer great advantages especially in regional groundwater management. It provides a short, quick processing, interpretation for a lot of complete hydro-chemical data sets and concise presentation of the results. There is a demonstrable need for a quality assurance, with the advanced usage of world's largest fresh water storage i.e Ground water. Its getting depleted over the years and the quality of the same degrading with a rapid pace. Ground water Quality is assessed mainly by the chemical analysis of samples. The data obtained from the chemical analysis is key for the further classification, analysis, correlation etc. Graphical and Numerical interpretation of the data is the main source for Hydro-chemical studies. In this paper we test the performance of the many available graphical and statistical methodologies used to classify water samples including: Collins bar diagram, Stiff pattern diagram, Schoeller plot, Piper diagram, Durov's Double Triangular Diagram, Gibbs's Diagram, Stuyfzand Classification. This paper explains various models which classify, correlate etc., summarizing the water quality data. The basic graphs and diagrams in each category are explained by sample diagrams. In addition to the diagrams an overall characterization of hydro-chemical facies of the water can be carried out by using plots which represents a water type and hardness domain. The combination of graphical and statistical techniques provides a consistent and objective means to classify large numbers of samples while retaining the ease of classic graphical presentation.
The document summarizes the tectonic framework of India in 3 broad divisions - Peninsular India, Extra-Peninsular India, and the Indo-Gangetic Plain. Peninsular India comprises the Indian shield and its sedimentary basins, and is further divided into the shield areas, mobile belts, and Proterozoic sedimentary basins. Extra-Peninsular India includes the Himalayan mountain ranges, divided into the Lesser Himalayan zone, Central Crystalline zone, and Tethyan zone. The Indo-Gangetic Plain is a deep crustal trough in northern India filled with Quaternary sediments.
Geomorphology and its application to hydrogeologysuchi4
The document discusses various aspects of fluvial geomorphology and their implications for hydrology, including:
1) Descriptions of different channel patterns such as braided, meandering, and anastomosing and the hydrological conditions associated with each.
2) Landforms such as alluvial fans, natural levees, and deltas that form at the interface between rivers and floodplains and influence hydrology.
3) How the geomorphology of limestone terrain, such as the presence of joints and solution features, impacts permeability and hydrology.
4) Several assessment methods for evaluating environmental flows, sediment impacts, and wetland functioning from a watershed perspective.
Highway engineering is an engineering discipline branching out from civil engineering. This subject involves the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of roads, bridges, and tunnels to ensure safe and effective transportation of people and goods. There are certain geological conditions which should be considered while laying the highways. This module give those details in general.
This document provides an overview of the syllabus for a Basic Civil Engineering course. The syllabus covers 5 units: building materials, building components, planning aspects and regulations, water supply and sanitary systems, and surveying and transportation. For the unit on surveying and transportation, the document defines surveying and its objectives and principles, and classifies surveying based on nature, objective, and instruments used. It also defines various modes of transportation like roadways, railways, and waterways, describing their typical cross-sections, components, and classifications.
The document discusses highway alignment and route surveys. It describes the requirements of an ideal alignment including being short, easy to construct and maintain, economical, and safe. It discusses factors that control highway alignment such as obligatory points, traffic, geometry, economy, and drainage. It also describes different types of route location surveys including reconnaissance, preliminary, and final location surveys. These surveys are used to identify feasible routes, collect data, estimate earthworks, and finalize the best alignment.
This document provides information on foundations for roads and bridges. It discusses shallow and deep foundations for buildings. For roads, it describes classification, geometric design considerations, and factors to consider in site investigations. Major bridge types include beam, truss, arch, and suspension bridges. Bridge site investigations consider geological and geotechnical factors that can impact foundations and stability. Foundations are designed based on bearing capacity and load transfer to the ground. Shallow foundations are used when soil/rock is sufficiently strong near the surface, while deep foundations using piles or piers are used when the surface is inadequate.
Design Methodology for Feasible Railway AlignmentIRJET Journal
This document describes the methodology for designing a feasible railway alignment between Nimerkhedi Station in Madhya Pradesh and a nearby power plant. The process involves reconnaissance, preliminary, and location surveys to determine the optimal route based on factors like topography, soil conditions, and costs. Horizontal and vertical alignments are designed through trial and error to set gradients and curves that allow trains to traverse changes in elevation within the required standards. Survey data on coordinates, ground levels, and obstacles is collected and analyzed to design the alignments that meet the objectives of connecting the two locations while minimizing construction costs.
This document provides an overview of various topics in civil engineering, including the different branches and their applications. It discusses surveying, structural engineering, transportation engineering, geotechnical engineering, construction management, irrigation engineering, earthquake engineering, and the roles of civil engineers in construction projects like buildings and dams. The key information presented includes the different types of structures, loads, soils, roads, and the purposes and methods of each civil engineering specialty.
This document provides an overview of various branches of civil engineering including structural engineering, transportation engineering, geotechnical engineering, environmental engineering, construction management, quantity surveying, irrigation engineering, and earthquake engineering. It also discusses related topics like surveying, roads, railways, soil mechanics, fluid mechanics, and the roles of civil engineers in different construction projects. The key branches covered are structural design of buildings and bridges, transportation infrastructure like roads and railways, foundation design and geotechnical soil testing, water and wastewater management, construction planning and management, and disaster mitigation.
The document is a major project report submitted by students of the Civil Engineering department at Government Polytechnic Udaipur. It details the design and planning of a link road from Jiol to Bari village in Udaipur district. The report includes an introduction, importance of roads, survey details of the project site, readings and drawings of the road's longitudinal section and cross sections, estimated costs, and tests conducted on construction materials. It was guided by lecturers Er. Sushil Daroch and Er. Manoj Kumar.
Unit 1:- HIGHWAY DEVELOPMENT AND PLANNINGRNRANGANATH
1. The document discusses highway development and planning in India, beginning with the Jayakar committee report of 1927 which recommended long-term planning, dedicated funding through fuel taxes, and establishing advisory and research bodies.
2. It then covers the necessity of highway planning to develop an efficient and cost-effective road network, and classifications of roads based on factors like weather conditions, location, traffic volume, and urban/rural distinctions.
3. The document also outlines the engineering surveys involved in road alignment projects, including map studies, reconnaissance, preliminary surveys, and final location and detailed surveys to determine the optimal route.
Practices in Planning, Design and Construction of Head Race Tunnel of a Hydro...Mohit Shukla
This paper has been selected for oral presentation as well as inclusion in the conference proceedings of the ICCCGE 2016 : 18th International Conference on Civil,Construction and Geological Engineering held in Toronto, Canada during June,
13-14, 2016. This paper was also able to find a position in the international conference of Dams and Hydropower held at Laos in May 2016.
Basic Civil and Environmental Engineering, Unit I [Based on First year Engine...Tushar Sonawane
Civil engineering deals with planning, designing, construction and maintenance of infrastructure projects like roads, bridges, buildings, and environmental structures. The document outlines the key areas of civil engineering like transportation engineering, structural engineering, geotechnical engineering, environmental engineering, and construction management. It also describes the roles of civil engineers in infrastructure development and their interdisciplinary work with other branches of engineering.
This document discusses the history and components of road development and transportation planning. It covers:
- The evolution of roads from Roman and French origins and the typical cross-section layers of a modern road (sub-base, base course, etc.).
- The importance of transportation planning for sustainable development and accessibility.
- Classification of roads by function (e.g. national highways), structure (flexible vs. rigid pavement), and surface type (paved, gravel).
- Key considerations in highway design like alignment factors, engineering surveys, and geometry elements such as sight distance and vertical/horizontal curves.
- India's road development history including major committees and plans from the 1920s to 1980s that targeted increasing total
Chapter 2 highway route surveys and locationaaBashaFayissa1
The document discusses the process of highway route selection and location surveys. It describes the key steps in the project cycle and highlights that route corridor selection comprises the first three activities of identification, feasibility, and design. It then explains that reconnaissance surveys identify broad corridor options, while preliminary surveys collect detailed data on shortlisted corridors to select the best alignment based on factors like design standards, drainage, costs etc. Final location surveys precisely mark the centerline and collect additional data for design. The goal is to find the shortest, easiest to construct and maintain, economically viable, safe, and environmentally friendly alignment between terminals.
Tunnelling is a serious engineering project.
In addition to large investment cost, the challenges related to long and deep tunnels are considerable.
Important aspects which needs to be considered are related to the construction works, geology, environment and operation. his module highlights all these aspects.
1. ii Highway Alignment,, Engineering Survey and feasibility study.pdfEr. Bam Bhandari
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Terrain Evaluation with Landuse Planning
1. Terrain Evaluation
The knowledge of terrain
1. Many resources inventories and developmental activities.
2. Identification of probable sites of soil erosion, landslides,floods and its prevention is
necessary to maintain soil productivity as well as to save life and property.
3. It is also relevant in the context of alignment studies (roads, railways,canals, drainage & water
supply pipe lines, power transmission lines etc.)
4. site selection studies (airports, harbours, dams, reservoirs, construction material etc.). The
subject of slope stability and construction material has been the concern of civil engineers.
5. Town planning and urban development, watershed development, wasteland development are
based on terrain evaluation. Terrain evaluation is the prerequisite for hazard and disaster
management.
Terrain Evaluation should form in itself a complete piece of terrain information for the current
work as well as for the future reference.
Applications: first consideration is for socio-economic requirements. Apart from this, from
engineering considerations, the terrain characteristics such as topography, type of soil cover,
geomorphology, and land use / land cover are most important to evaluate the terrain for various
alternatives. Terrain characteristics are important to soil scientist, geologist, foresters,geographers,
civil engineers, urban and regional planners and all those who need to evaluate the suitability of
terrain for various landuse.
CASE STUDIES: DUBAI ISLANDS :THE WORLD, Next Project is THE UNIVERSE
Considerations for Terrain Evaluation:
• Purpose : Additional land for development, recreation and tourism,
• Has to be located at tourist place of attraction, with other infrastructure
facilities for tourism as well as for residential and commercial applications
• Sandy areas,very deep bedrock , possibility of sea encroachment at other
places along the coast are problems.
• Challenges for reclamation, infrastructure development and building construction.
• Approachability for construction activities.
• Availability of construction material and expertise.
• Demand for development.
Building a Hanging Footpath
Considerations for Terrain Evaluation :
• Purpose : Sightseeing.
• Has to be located at tourist place, with other infrastructure facilities for tourism.
• In the ranges of mountain
• Very Good view for sightseeing
• Approachability at both ends
• Good solid rock
• Accessibility for construction
• Availability of specially skilled manpower
Hoover Dam :
Engineering Construction and Challenges ;
The top of the white band of rock in Lake is the old waterline, prior to the drought and development
in the Las Vegas area. It is over 100 feet above the current water level.
The original road joining New York to San Francisco was also opened in 1936. To avoid the
bottleneck along the long old road, twisting and winding around and across the dam
itself, 900 feet above the mighty Colorado River, a $160 million bridge was planned at the Hoover
Dam, known as the Hoover Dam bypass. It provides a new link between the states of
2. Nevada and Arizona. In an incredible feat of engineering, the road is supported on the two
massive concrete arches.
China’s RailwayAcross the Roofof the World:
Since the founding of the Republic of China in 1911, It has been China’s dream to have a national
railway system,connecting all provinces of the nation. Tibet became the last province to remain
unconnected owing to great and innumerable obstacles, since the 1950s. Among the many
challenges faced by Chinese railway planners, The following were the most significant:-
Formidable mountain barriers
Unstable permafrost & swampy wetlands
A Fragile Ecosystem
There were 17,000 ft-high mountains to climb, 12 kilometre-wide valleys to bridge,
Hundreds of kilometres of perennial ice and slush, that could never support tracks and trains.
How could anyone tunnel through rock at -400C, or lay rails when the least exertion sends you
gasping for oxygen in the thin air?
Kunlun Mountain Range: About 85 percent of the entire rail track is located in the ‘Forbidden
Zone’. This is also known as the “Death Zone” because of thin air, harsh and unpredictable
weather,fierce sandstorms and high UV radiation. Annual average temp is minus zero. Temperature
drops to as low as -45 degree C. Average altitude of rail track is 13,500 feet above sea level. The
highest point is 16,700 feet, making it the world's most elevated track.
Unstable Permafrost: There is a total of 550 km of permafrost along the rail route. Permafrost is
soft and wet soil in summer, hard and expanding in winter. - a nightmare for all railroad engineers.
The most viable solution is….Building of stone embankments for the railroad foundation.
In other spots, a pipe called a thermo-siphon was sunk 15 feet into the ground and filled at the bottom
with ammonia. The ammonia becomes gas at low temperatures,giving off a vapour that draws heat
from the bottom of the tube and flushes it out the top.
Konkan Railway
• Railway line running along the west coast of India. A missing link between India’s commercial
capital, Mumbai & Mangalore. 760 km line - 4850 hectares area • Built over most formidable western
ghats. Total Project spans across 30 years but actually constructed in 4 years
Technical challenges
-- Threat of heavy rainfall ; rainfall induced Landslides
-- Laterites and Lateritic Soft soils
-- Covering deep valleys, rugged moutains
-- Building state-of-the-art facilities
Considerations for TerrainEvaluation
- Identifying necessity of project
- Project Site Selection ( Railway Alignment)
- Land use planning
- Methodology of project
- Execution / Construction & maintenance
- Prioritization of work elements
- Project evaluation & EIA
- Future growth analysis
TERRAIN EVALUATION: site investigation as:
“Investigation of sites for the purpose of assessing their suitability for the construction of
civil engineering works, and of acquiring knowledge of the characteristics of a site, that
affect the design and construction of such works and securing of neighboring land and property.”
Terrain Evaluation has a much broader scope than this.
Terrain Evaluation implies the process ofassessment ofthe performance ofterrain when
3. it is used for specific purposes.
This involves the execution and interpretation of surveys and studies of landforms, soils, landcover,
vegetation, climate and other aspects of terrain; in order to identify and make a comparison of
promising kinds of landuse, in terms applicable to the objectives of the evaluation. The classification,
mapping and analysis provide a basic input in terrain evaluation studies.
Terrain classification involves the arrangement and grouping of the different areas of the earth’s
surface into a variety of categories on the basis of similarity of the type of surface and
near surface attributes. Terrain classification leads to terrain mapping. Each classified terrain facet is
further analyzed to understand its characteristic properties and behaviour in details. All these
combindly form the basis for terrain evaluation.
NECESSITYOF TERRAIN EVALUATION :
For the following activities ;-
Project Site Selection
Landuse Planning
Decide Methodology of Project
Construction / Erection
Execution and Maintenance
Developments and
Expansions
Prioritization of : work elements,
Areas of Development
Validation of : Data
Processes
models and Simulations
Methodology
Project Evaluation
Environmental Impact Assessment
QUANTITATIVE TERRAINDESCRIPTION:
Terrain can be described in qualitative or quantitative terms.
Qualitative Approach
Simple but Subjective Involves Visual inspection and Comparison of Maps, Photographs, Satellite
Imagery and Topographic Conditions
Quantitative Approach
Rigorous and Objective Involves Estimation of Parameters:Spectral-Textural Properties of Remote
Sensing Data; Terrain Elevations, Physical, Chemical and Engineering Characteristics of Terrain.
For appropriate terrain evaluation, the parameters to describe the terrain quantitatively, should be
chosen very carefully. The choice will depend on the type of the project area and the objective of the
terrain evaluation. The parameters chosen should satisfy following conditions
1. The parameter should be conceptually descriptive. i.e. should project mental image of physical
characteristic
2. The parameter should be easily measurable.
3. The parameter should be suitable for further numerical and statistical analysis
4. The parameter should allow objective comparison between two areas
The data collected is expressed in the form of maps and definitions of quantitative as well as
descriptive terms of the characteristic properties of each identified terrain feature. This is essential so
that the classification becomes workable in the hands of the user.
ADVANTAGES OF QUANTITATIVE APPROACH
- Offer mutually exclusive classification system in which classes are finite and do not overlap.
- Measure complex and functional relationships between the terrain units and their properties.
- Measure the variations in these properties within and between the engineering terrain units.
- Supply logical, simple, objective and organized basis for site investigation.
- Allow extrapolation of any characteristic of terrain.
4. - Facilitate integration of various data types and thus offer collectively exhaustive and all
inclusive terrain evaluation system.
- Facilitate computer aided objective approach
Terrain Evaluation Approaches can also be classified as :
ANALYTICAL METHODS
These are closed Form methods based on analysis of terrain parameters using Numerical
methods(finite elements, finite differences, boundary elements) or Analog simulations
using laboratory and in-situ testing and Theoretical Modelling.
EMPIRICAL DESIGN METHODS
In this approach statistical analysis of past events, processes is done and Empirical design
parameters,values, charts,nomograms are prepared for future use. Rock Mass Classification table is
the best example.
OBSERVATIONAL METHODS
These rely on actualmonitoring of Terrain Performance before-during-after the event or Process and
analyze them. Although considered as separate method, this is the only way to check the results and
predictions of both the above methods.
ADVANTAGES OF DEVELOPING GENNERALISEDTERRAIN CLASSIFICATION
SYSTEM
* Supplies more logical and organized basis for site investigation than the conventional methods
* Allows extrapolation of any characteristics of terrain
* Data gathered on one project can be useful in another project
* Facilitates integration of various data types, e.g. data collected by conventional method and
5. data generated from analysis of R.S. data
* Gives basis for the development of computerized Geographic Information System (GIS)
TERRAIN CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
CRITERIA FOR STANDARD TERRAIN CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM
* Accuracy of terrain units mapped and the characteristics measured,should be above 85%
* Two different interpreters should be able to produce repeatable & repetitive results
* The classification system should be suitable to use with remotely sensed data obtained at
different times in a year
* Aggregation of categories should be possible
* Interpolation, extrapolation & generalization of categories should be easy
* Comparison with future landuse data must be possible
* Classification system should be able to help in multipurpose project evaluations
There are three main approaches of designing the terrain classification system. These are: a) the
Genetic Approach, b) the Landform Approach and c) the Parametric Approach.
In genetic approach, more attention is given to process of profile development. These result in a
classification system composed of terrain units, systems and provinces that can hardly be used in
the present context. It would be useful in academic research. The landform approach may serve the
purpose much better, particularly if it is based on the principles of geomorphology.
The parametric approach is also frequently too academic and tends not to contribute to a clear
understanding of the gross interactions involved in the development of phenomenal terrain feature.
Landform approach with limited parametric sampling is usually adopted for semi detailed and
detailed terrain evaluation. This can further be combined with the information about the geology
of the terrain, Geomorphological Approach. best out of all the three abovementioned approaches. This
is then referred as the This is amenable to Remote Sensing data also because it is reasoned that ‘the
areas of terrain having the same mode of origin and occupying the same position in the landscape,
would have similar surface materials.