The document discusses stress-strain curves, which plot the stress and strain of a material sample under load. It describes the typical stress-strain behavior of ductile materials like steel and brittle materials like concrete. For ductile materials, the curve shows an elastic region, yield point, strain hardening region, and ultimate strength before failure. The yield point marks the transition between elastic and plastic deformation. The document also discusses factors that influence a material's yield stress, such as temperature and strain rate, and implications for structural engineering like reduced buckling strength after yielding.
Strength of Materials Lecture - 2
Elastic stress and strain of materials (stress-strain diagram)
Mehran University of Engineering and Technology.
Department of Mechanical Engineering.
This unit covers Types of stresses & strains,
Hooke’s law, stress-strain diagram,
Working stress,
Factor of safety,
Lateral strain,
Poisson’s ratio, volumetric strain,
Elastic moduli,
Deformation of simple and compound bars under axial load,
Analysis of composite bar with varying cross section.
Strength of Materials Lecture - 2
Elastic stress and strain of materials (stress-strain diagram)
Mehran University of Engineering and Technology.
Department of Mechanical Engineering.
This unit covers Types of stresses & strains,
Hooke’s law, stress-strain diagram,
Working stress,
Factor of safety,
Lateral strain,
Poisson’s ratio, volumetric strain,
Elastic moduli,
Deformation of simple and compound bars under axial load,
Analysis of composite bar with varying cross section.
Some basic defintions of the topics used in Strength of Materials subject. Pictorial presentation is more than details. Many examples are provided as well.
Some basic defintions of the topics used in Strength of Materials subject. Pictorial presentation is more than details. Many examples are provided as well.
Indian Dental Academy: will be one of the most relevant and exciting training center with best faculty and flexible training programs for dental professionals who wish to advance in their dental practice,Offers certified courses in Dental implants,Orthodontics,Endodontics,Cosmetic Dentistry, Prosthetic Dentistry, Periodontics and General Dentistry.
Mechanical properties of dental materials/ orthodontic course by indian denta...Indian dental academy
Indian Dental Academy: will be one of the most relevant and exciting training center with best faculty and flexible training programs for dental professionals who wish to advance in their dental practice,Offers certified courses in Dental implants,Orthodontics,Endodontics,Cosmetic Dentistry, Prosthetic Dentistry, Periodontics and General Dentistry.
Industrial Training at Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL)MdTanvirMahtab2
This presentation is about the working procedure of Shahjalal Fertilizer Company Limited (SFCL). A Govt. owned Company of Bangladesh Chemical Industries Corporation under Ministry of Industries.
Student information management system project report ii.pdfKamal Acharya
Our project explains about the student management. This project mainly explains the various actions related to student details. This project shows some ease in adding, editing and deleting the student details. It also provides a less time consuming process for viewing, adding, editing and deleting the marks of the students.
CFD Simulation of By-pass Flow in a HRSG module by R&R Consult.pptxR&R Consult
CFD analysis is incredibly effective at solving mysteries and improving the performance of complex systems!
Here's a great example: At a large natural gas-fired power plant, where they use waste heat to generate steam and energy, they were puzzled that their boiler wasn't producing as much steam as expected.
R&R and Tetra Engineering Group Inc. were asked to solve the issue with reduced steam production.
An inspection had shown that a significant amount of hot flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes, where the heat was supposed to be transferred.
R&R Consult conducted a CFD analysis, which revealed that 6.3% of the flue gas was bypassing the boiler tubes without transferring heat. The analysis also showed that the flue gas was instead being directed along the sides of the boiler and between the modules that were supposed to capture the heat. This was the cause of the reduced performance.
Based on our results, Tetra Engineering installed covering plates to reduce the bypass flow. This improved the boiler's performance and increased electricity production.
It is always satisfying when we can help solve complex challenges like this. Do your systems also need a check-up or optimization? Give us a call!
Work done in cooperation with James Malloy and David Moelling from Tetra Engineering.
More examples of our work https://www.r-r-consult.dk/en/cases-en/
Event Management System Vb Net Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
In present era, the scopes of information technology growing with a very fast .We do not see any are untouched from this industry. The scope of information technology has become wider includes: Business and industry. Household Business, Communication, Education, Entertainment, Science, Medicine, Engineering, Distance Learning, Weather Forecasting. Carrier Searching and so on.
My project named “Event Management System” is software that store and maintained all events coordinated in college. It also helpful to print related reports. My project will help to record the events coordinated by faculties with their Name, Event subject, date & details in an efficient & effective ways.
In my system we have to make a system by which a user can record all events coordinated by a particular faculty. In our proposed system some more featured are added which differs it from the existing system such as security.
Hybrid optimization of pumped hydro system and solar- Engr. Abdul-Azeez.pdffxintegritypublishin
Advancements in technology unveil a myriad of electrical and electronic breakthroughs geared towards efficiently harnessing limited resources to meet human energy demands. The optimization of hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems plays a pivotal role in utilizing natural resources effectively. This initiative not only benefits humanity but also fosters environmental sustainability. The study investigated the design optimization of these hybrid systems, focusing on understanding solar radiation patterns, identifying geographical influences on solar radiation, formulating a mathematical model for system optimization, and determining the optimal configuration of PV panels and pumped hydro storage. Through a comparative analysis approach and eight weeks of data collection, the study addressed key research questions related to solar radiation patterns and optimal system design. The findings highlighted regions with heightened solar radiation levels, showcasing substantial potential for power generation and emphasizing the system's efficiency. Optimizing system design significantly boosted power generation, promoted renewable energy utilization, and enhanced energy storage capacity. The study underscored the benefits of optimizing hybrid solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems for sustainable energy usage. Optimizing the design of solar PV panels and pumped hydro energy supply systems as examined across diverse climatic conditions in a developing country, not only enhances power generation but also improves the integration of renewable energy sources and boosts energy storage capacities, particularly beneficial for less economically prosperous regions. Additionally, the study provides valuable insights for advancing energy research in economically viable areas. Recommendations included conducting site-specific assessments, utilizing advanced modeling tools, implementing regular maintenance protocols, and enhancing communication among system components.
Sachpazis:Terzaghi Bearing Capacity Estimation in simple terms with Calculati...Dr.Costas Sachpazis
Terzaghi's soil bearing capacity theory, developed by Karl Terzaghi, is a fundamental principle in geotechnical engineering used to determine the bearing capacity of shallow foundations. This theory provides a method to calculate the ultimate bearing capacity of soil, which is the maximum load per unit area that the soil can support without undergoing shear failure. The Calculation HTML Code included.
Welcome to WIPAC Monthly the magazine brought to you by the LinkedIn Group Water Industry Process Automation & Control.
In this month's edition, along with this month's industry news to celebrate the 13 years since the group was created we have articles including
A case study of the used of Advanced Process Control at the Wastewater Treatment works at Lleida in Spain
A look back on an article on smart wastewater networks in order to see how the industry has measured up in the interim around the adoption of Digital Transformation in the Water Industry.
TECHNICAL TRAINING MANUAL GENERAL FAMILIARIZATION COURSEDuvanRamosGarzon1
AIRCRAFT GENERAL
The Single Aisle is the most advanced family aircraft in service today, with fly-by-wire flight controls.
The A318, A319, A320 and A321 are twin-engine subsonic medium range aircraft.
The family offers a choice of engines
Automobile Management System Project Report.pdfKamal Acharya
The proposed project is developed to manage the automobile in the automobile dealer company. The main module in this project is login, automobile management, customer management, sales, complaints and reports. The first module is the login. The automobile showroom owner should login to the project for usage. The username and password are verified and if it is correct, next form opens. If the username and password are not correct, it shows the error message.
When a customer search for a automobile, if the automobile is available, they will be taken to a page that shows the details of the automobile including automobile name, automobile ID, quantity, price etc. “Automobile Management System” is useful for maintaining automobiles, customers effectively and hence helps for establishing good relation between customer and automobile organization. It contains various customized modules for effectively maintaining automobiles and stock information accurately and safely.
When the automobile is sold to the customer, stock will be reduced automatically. When a new purchase is made, stock will be increased automatically. While selecting automobiles for sale, the proposed software will automatically check for total number of available stock of that particular item, if the total stock of that particular item is less than 5, software will notify the user to purchase the particular item.
Also when the user tries to sale items which are not in stock, the system will prompt the user that the stock is not enough. Customers of this system can search for a automobile; can purchase a automobile easily by selecting fast. On the other hand the stock of automobiles can be maintained perfectly by the automobile shop manager overcoming the drawbacks of existing system.
About
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Technical Specifications
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
Key Features
Indigenized remote control interface card suitable for MAFI system CCR equipment. Compatible for IDM8000 CCR. Backplane mounted serial and TCP/Ethernet communication module for CCR remote access. IDM 8000 CCR remote control on serial and TCP protocol.
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system
• Copatiable with IDM8000 CCR
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
Application
• Remote control: Parallel or serial interface.
• Compatible with MAFI CCR system.
• Compatible with IDM8000 CCR.
• Compatible with Backplane mount serial communication.
• Compatible with commercial and Defence aviation CCR system.
• Remote control system for accessing CCR and allied system over serial or TCP.
• Indigenized local Support/presence in India.
• Easy in configuration using DIP switches.
Cosmetic shop management system project report.pdfKamal Acharya
Buying new cosmetic products is difficult. It can even be scary for those who have sensitive skin and are prone to skin trouble. The information needed to alleviate this problem is on the back of each product, but it's thought to interpret those ingredient lists unless you have a background in chemistry.
Instead of buying and hoping for the best, we can use data science to help us predict which products may be good fits for us. It includes various function programs to do the above mentioned tasks.
Data file handling has been effectively used in the program.
The automated cosmetic shop management system should deal with the automation of general workflow and administration process of the shop. The main processes of the system focus on customer's request where the system is able to search the most appropriate products and deliver it to the customers. It should help the employees to quickly identify the list of cosmetic product that have reached the minimum quantity and also keep a track of expired date for each cosmetic product. It should help the employees to find the rack number in which the product is placed.It is also Faster and more efficient way.
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdfKamal Acharya
The Division of Vaccine and Immunization is facing increasing difficulty monitoring vaccines and other commodities distribution once they have been distributed from the national stores. With the introduction of new vaccines, more challenges have been anticipated with this additions posing serious threat to the already over strained vaccine supply chain system in Kenya.
Vaccine management system project report documentation..pdf
Stress strain curve
1. Stress-strain curve
A stress-strain curve is a graph derived from measuring load (stress - σ) versus
extension (strain - ε) for a sample of a material. The nature of the curve varies from
material to material. The following diagrams illustrate the stress-strain behaviour of
typical materials in terms of the engineering stress and engineering strain where the
stress and strain are calculated based on the original dimensions of the sample and not
the instantaneous values. In each case the samples are loaded in tension although in
many cases similar behaviour is observed in compression.
Ductile materials
Fig 1. A stress-strain curve typical of structural steel
1. Ultimate Strength
2. Yield Strength
3. Rupture
4. Strain hardening region
5. Necking region.
Steel generally exhibits a very linear stress-strain relationship up to a well defined
yield point (figure 1). The linear portion of the curve is the elastic region and the
slope is the modulus of elasticity or Young's Modulus. After the yield point the curve
typically decreases slightly due to dislocations escaping from Cottrell atmospheres.
As deformation continues the stress increases due to strain hardening until it reaches
the ultimate strength. Until this point the cross-sectional area decreases uniformly due
2. to Poisson contractions. However, beyond this point a neck forms where the local
cross-sectional area decreases more quickly than the rest of the sample resulting in an
increase in the true stress. On an engineering stress-strain curve this is seen as a
decrease in the stress. Conversely, if the curve is plotted in terms of true stress and
true strain the stress will continue to rise until failure. Eventually the neck becomes
unstable and the specimen ruptures (fractures).
Most ductile metals other than steel do not have a well-defined yield point (figure 2).
For these materials the yield strength is typically determined by the "offset yield
method", by which a line is drawn parallel to the linear elastic portion of the curve
and intersecting the abscissa at some arbitrary value (most commonly .2%). The
intersection of this line and the stress-strain curve is reported as the yield point.
Brittle materials
Brittle materials such as concrete or ceramics do not have a yield point. For these
materials the rupture strength and the ultimate strength are the same.
Properties
The area underneath the stress-strain curve is the toughness of the material- i.e. the
energy the material can absorb prior to rupture.........
The resilience of the material is the triangular area underneath the elastic region of the
curve.
Yield (engineering)
Yield strength, or the yield point, is defined in engineering and materials science as
the stress at which a material begins to plastically deform. Prior to the yield point the
material will deform elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied
stress is removed. Once the yield point is passed some fraction of the deformation will
be permanent and non-reversible. Knowledge of the yield point is vital when
designing a component since it generally represents an upper limit to the load that can
3. be applied. It is also important for the control of many materials production
techniques such as forging, rolling, or pressing
In structural engineering, yield is the permanent plastic deformation of a structural
member under stress. This is a soft failure mode which does not normally cause
catastrophic failure unless it accelerates buckling.
In 3D space of principal stresses (σ1,σ2,σ3), an infinite number of yield points form
together a yield surface.
Definition
It is often difficult to precisely define yield due to the wide variety of stress-strain
behaviours exhibited by real materials. In addition there are several possible ways to
define the yield point in a given material:
· The point at which dislocations first begin to move. Given that dislocations
begin to move at very low stresses, and the difficulty in detecting such
movement, this definition is rarely used.
· Elastic Limit - The lowest stress at which permanent deformation can be
measured. This requires a complex iteractive load-unload procedure and is
critically dependent on the accuracy of the equipment and the skill of the
operator.
· Proportional Limit - The point at which the stress-strain curve becomes non-linear.
In most metallic materials the elastic limit and proportional limit are
essentially the same.
· Offset Yield Point (proof stress) - Due to the lack of a clear border between
the elastic and plastic regions in many materials, the yield point is often
defined as the stress at some arbitrary plastic strain (typically 0.2% [1]). This
is determined by the intersection of a line offset from the linear region by the
required strain. In some materials there is essentially no linear region and so a
certain value of plastic strain is defined instead. Although somewhat arbitrary
this method does allow for a consistent comparison of materials and is the
most common.
4. Yield criterion
A yield criterion, often expressed as yield surface, is an hypothesis concerning the
limit of elasticity under any combination of stresses. There are two interpretations of
yield criterion: one is purely mathematical in taking a statistical approach while other
models attempt to provide a justification based on established physical principles.
Since stress and strain are tensor qualities they can be described on the basis of three
principal directions, in the case of stress these are denoted by , and .
The following represent the most common yield criterion as applied to an isotropic
material (uniform properties in all directions). Other equations have been proposed or
are used in specialist situations.
Maximum Principal Stress Theory - Yield occurs when the largest principal stress
exceeds the uniaxial tensile yield strength. Although this criterion allows for a quick
and easy comparison with experimental data it is rarely suitable for design purposes.
Maximum Principal Strain Theory - Yield occurs when the maximum principal
strain reaches the strain corresponding to the yield point during a simple tensile test.
In terms of the principal stresses this is determined by the equation:
Maximum Shear Stress Theory - Also known as the Tresca criterion, after the
French scientist Henri Tresca. This assumes that yield occurs when the shear stress
exceeds the shear yield strength :
Total Strain Energy Theory - This theory assumes that the stored energy associated
with elastic deformation at the point of yield is independent of the specific stress
tensor. Thus yield occurs when the strain energy per unit volume is greater than the
5. strain energy at the elastic limit in simple tension. For a 3-dimensional stress state this
is given by:
Distortion Energy Theory - This theory proposes that the total strain energy can be
separated into two components: the volumetric (hydrostatic) strain energy and the
shape (distortion or shear) strain energy. It is proposed that yield occurs when the
distortion component exceeds that at the yield point for a simple tensile test. This is
generally referred to as the Von Mises criterion and is expressed as:
Based on a different theoretical underpinning this expression is also referred to as
octahedral shear stress theory.
Factors influencing yield stress
The stress at which yield occurs is dependent on both the rate of deformation (strain
rate) and, more significantly, the temperature at which the deformation occurs. Early
work by Alder and Philips in 1954 found that the relationship between yield stress and
strain rate (at constant temperature) was best described by a power law relationship of
the form
where C is a constant and m is the strain rate sensitivity. The latter generally increases
with temperature, and materials where m reaches a value greater than ~0.5 tend to
exhibit super plastic behaviour.
Later, more complex equations were proposed that simultaneously dealt with both
temperature and strain rate:
6. where α and A are constants and Z is the temperature-compensated strain-rate - often
described by the Zener-Hollomon parameter:
where QHW is the activation energy for hot deformation and T is the absolute
temperature.
Implications for structural engineering
Yielded structures have a lower and less constant modulus of elasticity, so deflections
increase and buckling strength decreases, and both become more difficult to predict.
When load is removed, the structure will remain permanently bent, and may have
residual pre-stress. If buckling is avoided, structures have a tendency to adapt a more
efficient shape that will be better able to sustain (or avoid) the loads that bent it.
Because of this, highly engineered structures rely on yielding as a graceful failure
mode which allows fail-safe operation. In aerospace engineering, for example, no
safety factor is needed when comparing limit loads (the highest loads expected during
normal operation) to yield criteria. Safety factors are only required when comparing
limit loads to ultimate failure criteria, (buckling or rupture.) In other words, a plane
which undergoes extraordinary loading beyond its operational envelope may bend a
wing slightly, but this is considered to be a fail-safe failure mode which will not
prevent it from making an emergency landing.
Elastic modulus
An elastic modulus, or modulus of elasticity, is the mathematical description of an
object or substance's tendency to be deformed elastically (i.e. non-permanently) when
a force is applied to it. The elastic modulus of an object is defined as the slope of its
stress-strain curve in the elastic deformation region:
7. where λ is the elastic modulus; stress is the force causing the deformation divided by
the area to which the force is applied; and strain is the ratio of the change caused by
the stress to the original state of the object. Because stress is measured in pascals and
strain is a unitless ratio, the units of λ are therefore pascals as well. An alternative
definition is that the elastic modulus is the stress required to cause a sample of the
material to double in length. This is not literally true for most materials because the
value is far greater than the yield stress of the material or the point where elongation
becomes nonlinear but some may find this definition more intuitive.
Specifying how stress and strain are to be measured, including directions, allows for
many types of elastic moduli to be defined. The three primary ones are
· Young's modulus (E) describes tensile elasticity, or the tendency of an object
to deform along an axis when opposing forces are applied along that axis; it is
defined as the ratio of tensile stress to tensile strain. It is often referred to
simply as the elastic modulus.
· The shear modulus or modulus of rigidity (G or μ) describes an object's
tendency to shear (the deformation of shape at constant volume) when acted
upon by opposing forces; it is defined as shear stress over shear strain. The
shear modulus is part of the derivation of viscosity.
· The bulk modulus (K) describes volumetric elasticity, or the tendency of an
object's volume to deform when under pressure; it is defined as volumetric
stress over volumetric strain, and is the inverse of compressibility. The bulk
modulus is an extension of Young's modulus to three dimensions.
Three other elastic moduli are Poisson's ratio, Lamé's first parameter, and P-wave
modulus.
Homogeneous and isotropic (similar in all directions) materials (solids) have their
(linear) elastic properties fully described by two elastic moduli, and one may choose
any pair. Given a pair of elastic moduli, all other elastic moduli can be calculated
according to formulas in the table below.
Inviscid fluids are special in that they can not support shear stress, meaning that the
shear modulus is always zero. This also implies that Young's modulus is always zero.
8. Young's modulus
In solid mechanics, Young's modulus (E) is a measure of the stiffness of a given
material. It is also known as the Young modulus, modulus of elasticity, elastic
modulus or tensile modulus (the bulk modulus and shear modulus are different types
of elastic modulus). It is defined as the ratio, for small strains, of the rate of change of
stress with strain.[1] This can be experimentally determined from the slope of a stress-strain
curve created during tensile tests conducted on a sample of the material.
Young's modulus is named after Thomas Young, the 18th Century British scientist.
Units
The SI unit of modulus of elasticity (E, or less commonly Y) is the pascal. Given the
large values typical of many common materials, figures are usually quoted in
megapascals or gigapascals. Some use an alternative unit form, kN/mm², which gives
the same numeric value as gigapascals.
The modulus of elasticity can also be measured in other units of pressure, for example
pounds per square inch.
Usage
The Young's modulus allows the behavior of a material under load to be calculated.
For instance, it can be used to predict the amount a wire will extend under tension, or
to predict the load at which a thin column will buckle under compression. Some
calculations also require the use of other material properties, such as the shear
modulus, density, or Poisson's ratio.
Linear vs non-linear
For many materials, Young's modulus is a constant over a range of strains. Such
materials are called linear, and are said to obey Hooke's law. Examples of linear
materials include steel, carbon fiber, and glass. Rubber and soil (except at very low
strains) are non-linear materials.
9. Directional materials
Most metals and ceramics, along with many other materials, are isotropic - their
mechanical properties are the same in all directions, but metals and ceramics can be
treated to create different grain sizes and orientations. This treatment makes them
anisotropic, meaning that Young's modulus will change depending on which direction
the force is applied from. However, some materials, particularly those which are
composites of two or more ingredients have a "grain" or similar mechanical structure.
As a result, these anisotropic materials have different mechanical properties when
load is applied in different directions. For example, carbon fiber is much stiffer
(higher Young's modulus) when loaded parallel to the fibers (along the grain). Other
such materials include wood and reinforced concrete. Engineers can use this
directional phenomonon to their advantage in creating various structures in our
environment. Concrete is commonly used to construct support columns in buildings,
supporting huge loads under compression. However, when concrete is used in the
construction of bridges and is in tension, it needs to be reinforced with steel which has
a far higher value of Young's modulus in tension and compensates for concrete's low
value in tension. Copper is an excellent conductor of electricity and is used to transmit
electricity over long distance cables, however copper has a relatively low value for
Young's modulus at 130GPa and it tends to stretch in tension. When the copper cable
is bound completely in steel wire around its outside this stretching can be prevented as
the steel (with a higher value of Young's modulus in tension) takes up the tension that
the copper would otherwise experience.
Calculation
Young's modulus, E, can be calculated by dividing the tensile stress by the tensile
strain:
where
E is the Young's modulus (modulus of elasticity) measured in pascals;
10. F is the force applied to the object;
A0 is the original cross-sectional area through which the force is applied;
ΔL is the amount by which the length of the object changes;
L0 is the original length of the object.
Force exerted by stretched or compressed material
The Young's modulus of a material can be used to calculate the force it exerts under a
specific strain.
where F is the force exerted by the material when compressed or stretched by ΔL.
From this formula can be derived Hooke's law, which describes the stiffness of an
ideal spring:
where
Elastic potential energy
The elastic potential energy stored is given by the integral of this expression with
respect to L:
where Ue is the elastic potential energy.
The elastic potential energy per unit volume is given by:
11. , where is the strain in the material.
This formula can also be expressed as the integral of Hooke's law:
Approximate values
Young's modulus can vary considerably depending on the exact composition of the
material. For example, the value for most metals can vary by 5% or more, depending
on the precise composition of the alloy and any heat treatment applied during
manufacture. As such, many of the values here are approximate.
Approximate Young's moduli of various solids
Material
Young's modulus
(E) in G Pa
Young's modulus (E) in
lbf/in² (psi)
Rubber (small strain) 0.01-0.1 1,500-15,000
Low density polyethylene 0.2 30,000
Polypropylene 1.5-2 217,000-290,000
Bacteriophage capsids 1-3 150,000-435,000
Polyethylene terephthalate 2-2.5 290,000-360,000
Polystyrene 3-3.5 435,000-505,000
Nylon 3-7 290,000-580,000
Oak wood (along grain) 11 1,600,000
High-strength concrete (under
30 4,350,000
compression)
Magnesium metal (Mg) 45 6,500,000
Aluminium alloy 69 10,000,000
Glass (all types) 72 10,400,000
Brass and bronze 103-124 17,000,000