This document defines solutions and suspensions. A solution is a homogeneous mixture where a solute dissolves in a solvent, such as salt dissolving in water. A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture where particles are suspended in a liquid or gas, such as chalk in water. Solutions are homogeneous, allow light to pass through, and leave no residue when filtered, while suspensions are heterogeneous, prevent light from passing through, and can be separated by filtration. The solubility of a solute depends on factors like the nature of the solute and solvent and the temperature.
A mixture forms when two or more substances are combined such that each substance retains its own chemical identity. Everywhere around us are made up of mixtures. We can see them in nature, along the surface of the earth, in the oceans and in the foods we eat. There are infinite numbers of mixtures that can be combined into homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Factors Affecting Solubility and Rate of Dissolution
Solubility
is the ability of a substance to be dissolved in another substance at a specific temperature and pressure.
It is also defined as the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent at a specified temperature and pressure to produce a solution in equilibrium.
It is usually expressed in grams of solute per milliliters of solvent.
Factors Affecting Solubility
1. Nature of Solute and Solvent
A solute can only be dissolved in a solvent when they are “alike.” A general rule is “like dissolves like.”
2. Temperature
The solubility of a solid and liquid solute increases when temperature is increased.
The solubility of a gaseous solute to a liquid solvent decreases as temperature increases.
3. Pressure
The effect of pressure is only applicable for the solubility of gases in liquids. The higher the pressure of a gas, the more soluble it is.
Rate of Dissolution
The rate of dissolution is defined as how fast a solute dissolves in a given solvent at a specific temperature. The process of dissolving a solute is called dissolution.
Factors Affecting the Rate of Dissolution
1. Stirring
Stirring a solute will increase its rate of dissolution. When you stir, solute particles come into closer contact more often with solvent particles.
2. Size of the solute particle
The smaller the particles of the solute, the faster it dissolves in the solvent. Small particles provide larger surface area for contact with the solvent.
3. Temperature
As temperature increases, the rate of dissolution of solid and liquid solutes also increases.
4. Amount of solute present in a solution
When you have little amount of solute in the solution, it is easier to dissolve the same solute in the given solvent. However, when you have a lot of solute already present in the solvent, dissolution takes slowly.
A mixture forms when two or more substances are combined such that each substance retains its own chemical identity. Everywhere around us are made up of mixtures. We can see them in nature, along the surface of the earth, in the oceans and in the foods we eat. There are infinite numbers of mixtures that can be combined into homogeneous or heterogeneous.
Factors Affecting Solubility and Rate of Dissolution
Solubility
is the ability of a substance to be dissolved in another substance at a specific temperature and pressure.
It is also defined as the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in a given amount of solvent at a specified temperature and pressure to produce a solution in equilibrium.
It is usually expressed in grams of solute per milliliters of solvent.
Factors Affecting Solubility
1. Nature of Solute and Solvent
A solute can only be dissolved in a solvent when they are “alike.” A general rule is “like dissolves like.”
2. Temperature
The solubility of a solid and liquid solute increases when temperature is increased.
The solubility of a gaseous solute to a liquid solvent decreases as temperature increases.
3. Pressure
The effect of pressure is only applicable for the solubility of gases in liquids. The higher the pressure of a gas, the more soluble it is.
Rate of Dissolution
The rate of dissolution is defined as how fast a solute dissolves in a given solvent at a specific temperature. The process of dissolving a solute is called dissolution.
Factors Affecting the Rate of Dissolution
1. Stirring
Stirring a solute will increase its rate of dissolution. When you stir, solute particles come into closer contact more often with solvent particles.
2. Size of the solute particle
The smaller the particles of the solute, the faster it dissolves in the solvent. Small particles provide larger surface area for contact with the solvent.
3. Temperature
As temperature increases, the rate of dissolution of solid and liquid solutes also increases.
4. Amount of solute present in a solution
When you have little amount of solute in the solution, it is easier to dissolve the same solute in the given solvent. However, when you have a lot of solute already present in the solvent, dissolution takes slowly.
Grade 8 Integrated Science Chapter 10 Lesson 2 on properties of solution, solubility, concentration, solvents, and solutes. Understanding how to change solubility of a solute in a solvent.
Chapter - 2, Is matter around us pure?, Science, Class 9Shivam Parmar
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Chapter - 2, Is matter around us pure?, Science, Class 9
PURE SUBSTANCES
WHAT IS A MIXTURE?
HOMOGENEOUS MIXTURE
HETEROGENEOUS MIXTURE
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MIXTURES AND COMPOUNDS
SOLUTION
PROPERTIES OF SOLUTION
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
CONCENTRATION
SUSPENSION
COLLOIDAL SOLUTION
PROPERTIES OF COLLOIDS
TYNDALL EFFECT
COMPONENTS OF COLLOID
SEPARATING THE COMPONENTS OF A MIXTURE
PHYSICAL CHANGE
CHEMICAL CHANGE
Every topic of this chapter is well written concisely and visuals will help you in understanding and imagining the practicality of all the topics.
By Shivam Parmar (Entrepreneur)
solution, in chemistry, a homogenous mixture of two or more substances in relative amounts that can be varied continuously up to what is called the limit of solubility. The term solution is commonly applied to the liquid state of matter, but solutions of gases and solids are possible. Air, for example, is a solution consisting chiefly of oxygen and nitrogen with trace amounts of several other gases, and brass is a solution composed of copper and zinc.
A brief treatment of solutions follows. For full treatment, see liquid: Solutions and solubilities.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
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Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
2. Definition of Solution
• A solution is a homogeneous mixture which
contains one or more solutes dissolved in a
solvent.
• The solute is the substance that dissolves.
• The solvent is the substance that the solute
dissolves in and it forms the bulk of the
solution
• In a salt solution,salt is the solute and water
is the solvent.
6. NATURE OF SOLUTIONS
• A solution is homogeneous in that its
physical and chemical properties are the
same in its every part of the solution.
• A solution allows light to pass through it.
• A solution does not leave any residue when
filtered.
7.
8. Definition of Suspensions
• A suspension is a mixture containing small
solid or liquid particles suspended in a liquid
or gas.
• For example, a mixture of chalk and water
forms a suspension as chalk is insoluble in
water.
9. NATURE OF SUSPENSIONS
• A suspension is heterogeneous.
• A suspension prevents light from passing
through it.
• A suspension can be easily separated into its
components by filtration.
10.
11. SOLUBILITY
• Solubility is the maximum amount of a
solute which can dissolve in a given amount
of solvent at a particular temperature.
• The solubility depends on:
1) the nature of solute,
2) the nature of the solvent,
3) the temperature of the solution.
12.
13. STRENGTH OF SOLUTIONS
• A dilute solution contains a small amount of
solute in a large volume of solvent.
• A concentrated solution contains a large
amount of solute dissolved in its solvent.
• A saturated solution is one which contains
the maximum amount of dissolved solute in
the presence of excess solute.
