Seafloor Features
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This document summarizes key concepts in oceanography. It describes how oceans are divided and measured depths of oceans. It outlines techniques used to map ocean floors including early knotted ropes, later sonar, and now satellites. It details different features of ocean floors including mid-ocean ridges where new crust forms, seamounts, guyots, and trenches near subduction zones. It distinguishes between active margins with subduction and passive margins without, and features associated with each.
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Introduction marine geology
Marine geology is the study of the Earth below the oceans and seas. It examines the character and history of ocean floors and coastal areas. Major developments in marine geology include the HMS Challenger expedition in the 1870s which made the first systematic survey of ocean basins, and the Lamont-Doherty Geological Observatory founded in 1948 which advanced techniques like precision depth recording and piston coring. Deep-sea drilling projects from the 1960s-1980s using vessels like the Glomar Challenger confirmed theories of seafloor spreading and plate tectonics through ocean floor sampling and drilling.
Transform plate boundary
This document provides an overview of transform plate boundaries, including:
1. Transform boundaries are zones where plates slide horizontally past each other with strong deformation but no new lithosphere is created or consumed.
2. There are three types of transform boundaries: ridge-ridge, ridge-trench, and trench-trench. Oceanic transforms form long fracture zones perpendicular to mid-ocean ridges.
3. Examples of prominent ocean fracture zones include the Romanche Fracture Zone and Clipperton Fracture Zone. Continental transforms like the San Andreas Fault accommodate plate motions but have more complex structures.
The Continental Margins
This document provides an overview of continental margins. It begins with introducing the objectives of understanding the importance and characteristics of continental margins in the context of earth and oceanographic studies. It then discusses various topics relevant to continental margins, including the earth's crust, plate tectonics, sea floor spreading, types of plate boundaries and movement, and features of convergent and divergent plate boundaries. The key aspects of continental margins are that they are the submerged zones separating thick continental crust from thin oceanic crust, and form the outer edges of continents.
Rock deformation
Rock deformation is the process by which rocks change shape due to stress and heat. Structural geology studies rock deformation, which can occur through folds, faults, or joints. Folds involve the bending of sedimentary or volcanic rocks into undulating waves, commonly seen as anticlines and synclines or domes and basins. Faults are fractures where the earth's crust is displaced, and include dip-slip, strike-slip, and tensional or compressional faults. Joints are fractures without displacement and include columnar and sheeting joints.
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The document summarizes the major ocean basins of the world. It describes the general characteristics of the Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic, and Southern Oceans, including their average depths, geological features, and freshwater inputs. It also lists marginal seas surrounding each ocean and provides additional details on the largest/smallest oceans, deepest ocean trenches, saltiest seas, and historical definition of "the seven seas".
Unconformities
Unconformities represent gaps or missing time in the geologic record due to non-deposition or erosion. There are several types of unconformities that can form, such as angular unconformities, disconformities, and nonconformities. Unconformities are important as they provide information about periods of geologic activity, like folding or erosion of the land, and help place boundaries on geologic timescales. They can be identified in the field based on features like a lack of parallel bedding above and below the contact, presence of erosion surfaces, and fossils of widely different ages across the boundary.
Divergent plate boundaries
Divergent plate boundaries occur where tectonic plates are moving away from each other. There are two main types of tectonic plates - continental plates composed of rocks and minerals, and oceanic plates which are thinner and located under seas. As the plates separate, molten lava rises up between them to form new crust. This divergence is driven by convection currents in the Earth's mantle which push the plates apart. New crust forms underwater as seafloor spreading, and volcanoes and mountains can form on the edges of the separating plates.
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2) There are two hypotheses for the origin of hotspots - one involving mantle plumes rising from the core-mantle boundary, the other involving passive rising of melt from shallow depths.
3) Hotspot tracks provide evidence for the plate tectonics model, as volcanic chains like the Hawaiian Islands can be explained by plates migrating over fixed mantle plumes.
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Magmatism, where rocks reach high temperatures and melt to form magma, which is then pushed through the mantle by convection currents. Volcanism occurs as magma escapes through openings, erupting at the surface with extreme heat and pressure. Metamorphism is the process by which the mineral components and textures of rocks change due to increases in heat, pressure, and fluids, occurring through contact or regional metamorphism on large scales.
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Plate Boundaries
The document describes the four main types of plate boundaries:
1) Divergent boundaries occur at spreading centers where new crust is created and plates move apart, such as at the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
2) Convergent boundaries exist where plates collide and one is subducted under the other, forming deep ocean trenches.
3) Transform boundaries result from two plates sliding past each other horizontally, such as along the San Andreas Fault.
4) Continent-continent collisions buckle and uplift massive mountain ranges, as when India collided with Asia to form the Himalayas.
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The document discusses faults in terms of geology. It begins by defining a fault as a fracture between rock blocks that have moved relative to each other parallel to the fracture plane. It then discusses different types of faults including normal faults, strike-slip faults, and oblique slip faults. It provides examples of key features associated with different fault types, such as horsts and grabens associated with normal faults, and flower structures associated with strike-slip faults. The document also discusses methods for recognizing faults based on geological, fault plane, and physiographic evidence observed in the field.
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The document discusses the deformation of rock crust through various tectonic processes. It defines deformation as the process by which crust is deformed along plate margins, producing geologic structures like folds, faults, joints and foliation. It describes how different rock types deform under stress through either ductile or brittle deformation. The key types of deformation discussed are folding, where layers of rock are bent, and faulting, where connected blocks of rock are displaced along a fracture plane. Common fold types include anticlines, synclines and monoclines. Fault types include normal, reverse, strike-slip and oblique-slip faults.
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This document discusses various coastal landforms and processes. It defines coastal geomorphology and describes how waves, longshore currents, rip currents, and tides shape coastal areas and transport sediment. It then lists and describes specific coastal landforms like headlands, bays, sea cliffs, beaches, bars, spits, tombolos, sand dunes, salt marshes, and more. For each landform, it provides a brief definition and example photo. Coastal erosion processes like abrasion, hydraulic action, corrosion, and attrition are also outlined.
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Solar System
The document provides information about the solar system, including:
- The solar nebula hypothesis which explains how the sun and planets formed from a cloud of gas and dust.
- Distances in space are measured in light years or astronomical units.
- The eight major planets consist of four inner terrestrial planets and four outer gas giants, along with the dwarf planet Pluto.
- Key facts are provided about each of the planets, such as their composition, moons, temperatures, densities and more.
Pictures of Different Minerals
This document contains pictures of different minerals including sulfur, quartz, calcite, mica, feldspar, pyrite, galena, magnetite, graphite, hematite and olivine. The feldspar entry specifies the types orthoclase and plagioclase. Pyrite is identified as fool's gold in parentheses.
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This document discusses various features of sea floor morphology including submarine canyons, continental rises, abyssal plains, pelagic sedimentation, reefs, atolls, guyots, seamounts, mid-ocean ridges, fracture zones, trenches, and continental margins. It describes morphological features like rift valleys, pillow basalts, gabbro dikes, axial volcanoes, and hydrothermal vents associated with mid-ocean ridges. It also discusses crustal recycling at trenches and the classification of continental margins as either passive or active.
Asteroids, Comets, and Meteors
Asteroids are rocky fragments that orbit the sun in ellipses, with the largest being Ceres. They are located mainly in the asteroid belt between Mars and Jupiter. Comets are small icy bodies that have highly elliptical orbits, originating from the Oort Cloud beyond Pluto. They develop a coma and tail when near the sun due to sublimating ice. Famous comets include Halley's Comet which returns every 76 years and Comet Hale-Bopp which returns every 5-10 years. Meteoroids are small rocky bodies that burn up as meteors in Earth's atmosphere, with some remnants surviving as meteorites on the ground.
The Rock Cycle and Rocks
This document provides information about the three main types of rocks: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic. It describes how each type forms and gives examples. Igneous rocks form from cooling magma or lava. Sedimentary rocks form from compaction and cementation of sediments. Metamorphic rocks form from heat and pressure altering existing rocks. The document also explains key processes that change rocks, such as weathering, erosion, melting and cooling. It introduces the concept of the rock cycle to show how rocks continuously change between the three types.
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Written information are rightfully gathered from the internet. Kindly, use this properly including proper citation. This is a presentation made during our high school days.
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Scientific theories are well-substantiated explanations of aspects of the natural world that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experimentation. Scientific laws are concise verbal or mathematical statements that express fundamental scientific principles and must always apply under the same conditions. Both theories and laws can be falsified with new contradictory evidence.
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Earth's early atmosphere contained hydrogen and helium. After the Moon formed, volcanic activity produced CO, CO2, and water vapor. Once cyanobacteria evolved and performed photosynthesis, they consumed CO2 and produced oxygen. Currently, Earth's atmosphere is 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% trace gases. Burning fossil fuels adds excess CO2 and pollutants, warming the climate. CFCs have also depleted the ozone layer.
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Weathering breaks rocks down into smaller pieces through physical or chemical processes when exposed to the atmosphere and hydrosphere. Physical weathering breaks rocks without changing their chemical composition through processes like frost wedging and abrasion. Chemical weathering alters the chemical composition of rocks through oxidation, hydrolysis, and carbonation. The products of weathering accumulate as soil and are further eroded by agents such as water, wind, and ice. Erosion transports eroded material which is eventually deposited elsewhere, usually in bodies of water, based on factors like particle size, shape, density, and transport velocity.
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Waves are moving energy caused by various forces. There are different types of waves including transverse waves which move side-to-side and longitudinal waves which involve push-pull motions. Key wave characteristics include the crest, trough, wavelength, height, period, and steepness. Wave behavior changes based on water depth, resulting in deep-water, shallow-water, and transitional waves. Ocean waves are influenced by processes such as shoaling, refraction, diffraction, interference, and breaking on shorelines. Tsunamis are extremely long seismic sea waves that can cause catastrophic damage when making landfall.
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Seafloor Features
- 1. Oceanography
- 2. • Ocean: >3 million sq km – Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Arctic – all are actually connected • Sea:<3 million sq km, partly enclosed by land
- 3. Measuring Ocean Depth: • First done with knotted ropes • later, sonar (SOund NAvigation Ranging) used sound waves • most ocean mapping now done with satellites
- 4. Sonar Sonar
- 6. Marine Geology • Many seafloor features are caused by plate tectonics; others by erosion and deposition • 2 sections of seafloor – 1. ocean basin: deep; oceanic crust
- 7. • 2. continental margins: shallow; cont. crust covered by water –active margins: have a trench or MOR –passive margins: none
- 10. Passive Margin (Atlantic-Type Margin) • continental margin moving away from the mid-ocean spreading center; • these margins have no mountain building activities; • get thick sediment deposits here that cover up the oceanic crust and the boundary between oceanic and continental crust
- 11. Passive Margin (Atlantic-Type Margin)
- 12. Active Margin (Pacific-Type Margin) • • • • • • continental margin is moving toward a subduction zone; is marked by active volcanoes, many earthquakes, and young mountains and elevation of land (because overlying plate is pushed up by subducting plate) oceanic crust and overlying sediment are partially melted at an active margin as plate is pulled downward; continents can grow here as ocean-bottom structures melt and weld onto the continental plate and as volcanoes erupt and spew lava area of intense earthquakes because friction builds up when upper plate scraps across subducting plate (like a up-down transform fault); strain on the rocks build up and eventually the rocks fail (get a fault zone) where subducting plate is old, cold and dense, it sinks into the mantle as a steeply dipping slab (occurs in western Pacific) -- can get volcanic activity here that will create new, small spreading centers (back-arc spreading centers); continental plate will retreat from these small spreading centers (low stress convergence) where subducting plate is young, warm and buoyant, slab dips at a gentle angle, resulting in volcanic activity that erupts on land; continental plate will advance here (high stress convergence)
- 13. Active Margin
- 14. Active Margin
- 15. Active Margin
- 16. Continental Margins • 1.Continental shelf: shallow; flat; continental crust covered by H20. –active margin: shelf is narrow; bordered by ocean trench and coastal mountains –passive margin: wide, flat shelf; no trench, flat coastal land
- 17. Active Margins These are Profiles of the Ocean Floor
- 18. Passive Margins These are Profiles of the Ocean Floor
- 19. • 2. Continental slope: steep boundary between oceanic (thin) and continental (thick) crust – active margin: slope ends at trench
- 20. • 3. Continental rise: gently sloping, thick pile of sediments at base of continental slope – passive margins only
- 21. • Submarine Canyon: deep cut at right angle to shelf – may be a drowned river valley – may be formed by fast-moving currents that create landslides that erode the canyon
- 22. Submarine Canyon
- 23. B. Ocean Basin • 5. Abyssal plains: flat, thick layers of sediments. • 6. Abyssal hills: small hills; probably parts of crust not yet covered by sediments.
- 25. • 7. Seamounts: underwater volcanoes
- 26. 8. Guyot: seamount w/flat top that was eroded by waves
- 27. 9. Mid-ocean ridge(MOR): undersea chain of volcanic mountains; where new crust is formed.
- 28. • MOR’s have active hydrothermal vents or “black smokers” where mineral-rich, superheated water comes out • site of chemosynthetic ecosystems where life is not based on sunlight but on the chemicals in the water
- 30. Birth of Deep Sea Vents (click on picture)
- 31. • Trench: long, narrow, deep; parallel to coast –converging boundary –ocean crust destroyed –deepest is Marianas Trench, 11km below sea level
- 32. Trench
- 34. Side View of Ocean Floor Features
- 35. Click on the picture below to get Interactive: Follow the instructions on the screen