This document discusses key concepts in process scheduling. It explains that the goal of multiprogramming is to maximize CPU utilization by reducing idle time when processes are waiting for I/O. It describes how processes alternate between CPU bursts and I/O waits in a cycle. Scheduling can be preemptive or nonpreemptive. Common scheduling algorithms like FCFS, SJF, priority, and round-robin are explained. The document also covers multilevel queue scheduling, multilevel feedback queue scheduling, and concepts for scheduling on multiprocessor systems.

1. Scheduling

2. Basic concept
In a single-processor system only one process can run at a
time. Other active processes wait their turn until the CPU is
free.
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The main purpose of the multiprogramming is to have
process running at all times, in order to maximize CPU
utilization.
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Maximization is achieved by reducing the idle time of a
process while waits for the completion of some I/O request
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3. CPU – I/O Burst Cycle
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The process execution
process execution consists of a
cycle of CPU execution and
I/O wait.
The duration of the CPU
execution and the I/O wait
depend on the process type.
Processes are divided in
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CPU bounded
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I/O bounded
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4. CPU Scheduler
A new process is scheduled by the CPU when the previous one:
1. switches from the running state to the waiting state,
2. switches from the running state to the ready state
3. switches from the waiting state to the ready state
4. terminates
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When scheduling takes place only under circumstances 1 and 4,
we say that the scheduling scheme is nonpreemptive or
cooperative, otherwise, it is preemptive.
At the nonpreemptive scheduling is the process that
autonomously releases the resource.
At the preemptive scheduling is the scheduler that forces the
process to interrupt and release the resource.
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5. Dispatcher
The dispatcher is the module that gives the control of the
CPU to the process selected by the short-term scheduler.
This module is responsible of the process switch:
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collects the information of one process to stop
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store the process stack
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load the next process stack
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give control to the CPU
The time the dispatcher takes to stop one process and
start another process of the queue is called dispatch latency.
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6. Scheduling Criteria
The criteria used by the algorithms to evaluate the efficiency are:
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CPU utilization: % of time where the CPU is busy.
Throughput: number of processes that are completed per time
unit (from mm to h).
Turnaround time: is the sum of the periods spent waiting to get
into memory, waiting in the ready queue, executing on the CPU,
and doing I/O.
Waiting time: is the sum of the periods spent waiting in the ready
queue.
Response time: is the time from the submission of a request until
the first response is produced.
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7. Scheduling Algorithms
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First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)
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Shortest-Job-First (SJF)
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Priority Scheduling
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Round-Robin Scheduling
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Multilevel Queue Scheduling
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Multilevel Feedback Queue Scheduling
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8. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)
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Simplest CPU-scheduling algorithm.
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The process that requests the CPU first is allocated the CPU
first (managed by the FIFO queue) .
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( + ) The code for FCFS scheduling is simple to write and
understand.
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( - ) The average waiting time under the FCFS policy is often
quite long.
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9. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)
Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 , P3,
with the respective computation time: 24, 3, 3.
Waiting time for:
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P1 = 0 – no process to wait;
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P2 = 24 – starts after P1;
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P3 = 27 – starts after P1 and P2;
Average waiting time: (0 + 24 + 27)/3 = 17
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10. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)
Suppose that the processes arrive in the order P2 , P3 , P1 with
the respective computation time: 3, 3, 24.
Waiting time for:
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P2 = 0 – no process to wait;
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P3 = 3 – starts after P2;
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P1 = 6 – starts after P2 and P3;
Average waiting time: (0 + 3 + 6) / 3 = 3
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11. First-Come, First-Served (FCFS)
FCFS is non-preemptive
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Not good for time sharing systems where where each user
needs to get a share of the CPU at regular intervals.
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Convoy effect short process(I/O bound) wait for one long
CPU-bound process to complete a CPU burst before they get
a turn
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lowers CPU and device utilization
I/O bound processes complete their burst and enter ready queue –
I/O devices idle and I/O bound processes waiting
CPU bound process completes CPU burst and moves to I/O device
I/O bound processes all quickly complete their CPU bursts and enter
I/O queue – now CPU is idle
CPU bound completes I/O and executes on CPU; back to step 1
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12. Shortest-Job-First (SJF)
Shortest-Next-CPU-Burst algorithm.
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This algorithm associates with each process the length of the
process’s next CPU burst.
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If the next CPU bursts of two processes are the same, FCFS
scheduling is used.
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Two schemes:
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nonpreemptive – once CPU given to the process it cannot be
preempted until completes its CPU burst.
preemptive – if a new process arrives with CPU burst length
less than remaining time of current executing process,
preempt. This scheme is know as the Shortest-RemainingTime-First (SRTF).
SJF is optimal – gives minimum average waiting time for a
given set of processes.
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13. Shortest-Job-First (SJF)
Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 , P3, P4
with the respective computation time: 6, 8, 7, 3.
Waiting time for:
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P4 = 0 – no process to wait;
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P1 = 3 – starts after P4;
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P3 = 9 – starts after P4 and P1;
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P2 = 16 – starts after P4, P1 and P3;
Average waiting time: (3 + 16 + 9 + 0)/4 = 7
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14. Shortest-Job-First (SJF)
Suppose that the processes arrive in the order: P1 , P2 , P3, P4
with the respective computation time: 8, 4, 9, 3.
Waiting time for:
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P4 = 0 – no process to wait;
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P2 = 3 – starts after P4;
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P3 = 9 – starts after P4 and P1;
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P2 = 16 – starts after P4, P1 and P3;
Average waiting time: (3 + 16 + 9 + 0)/4 = 7
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15. Priority Scheduling
A priority number (integer) is associated with each process
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The CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority
(smallest integer – highest priority).
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Can be preemptive (compares priority of process that has
arrived at the ready queue with priority of currently running
process) or nonpreemptive (put at the head of the ready
queue).
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SJF is a priority scheduling where priority is the predicted
next CPU burst time.
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Problem Starvation – low priority processes may never
execute.
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Solution Aging – as time progresses increase the priority of
the process.
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16. Priority Scheduling
Process
Burst Time
Priority
P1
10
3
P2
1
1
P3
2
4
P4
1
5
P5
5
2
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17. Round-Robin Scheduling
Each process gets a small unit of CPU time (time quantum),
usually 10-100 milliseconds. After this time has elapsed, the
process is preempted and added to the end of the ready
queue.
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If there are n processes in the ready queue and the time
quantum is q, then each process gets 1/n of the CPU time in
chunks of at most q time units at once. No process waits
more than (n-1)q time units.
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Performance
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q large -> FIFO
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q small -> q must be large with respect to context switch,
otherwise overhead is too high.
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18. Multilevel Queue Scheduling
Ready queue is partitioned into separate queues:
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foreground (interactive)
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background (batch)
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Each queue has its own scheduling algorithm,
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foreground – RR
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background – FCFS
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Scheduling must be done between the queues.
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Fixed priority scheduling; (i.e., serve all from foreground
then from background). Possibility of starvation.
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Time slice – each queue gets a certain amount of CPU
time which it can schedule amongst its processes; i.e.,
80% to foreground in RR, 20% to background in FCFS
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19. Multilevel Feedback Queue
A process can move between the various queues; aging can be
implemented this way.
Multilevel-feedback-queue scheduler defined by the following
parameters:
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number of queues
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scheduling algorithms for each queue
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method used to determine when to upgrade a process
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method used to determine when to demote a process
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method used to determine which queue a process will enter
when that process needs service
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20. Multilevel Feedback Queue
Three queues:
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Q0 – time quantum 8 milliseconds
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Q1 – time quantum 16 milliseconds
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Q2 – FCFS
Scheduling
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A new job enters queue Q0 which is served FCFS. When it
gains CPU, job receives 8 milliseconds. If it does not finish
in 8 milliseconds, job is moved to queue Q1.
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At Q1 job is again served FCFS and receives 16 additional
milliseconds. If it still does not complete, it is preempted
and moved to queue Q2.
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21. Multiple-Processor Scheduling
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Multiprocessing
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Processor affinity
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Soft
Hard
Load Balancing
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Asymmetric (AMP)
Symmetric (SMP)
push migration: task
pull migration: process
Multi-core
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22. Symmetric vs Asymmetric
Asymmetric: processors are dedicated to specific tasks.
Symmetric: processors can execute the same tasks and
exchange them during execution.
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23. Processor Affinity
Processor Affinity: the ability of a processor to exchange
process executing on run-time.
Soft affinity: a process can move from one CPU to another.
Hard affinity: a process can not move from one CPU to
another.
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24. Load Balancing
Push migration occurs when a specific task periodically
checks the load on each processor and move a process from a
busy CPU to an idle one.
Pull migration occurs when an idle processor pulls a waiting
task from a busy processor.
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