Saponins are plant constituents that cause foaming in aqueous solutions. They are glycosides that can be toxic if injected in the bloodstream but are harmless when taken orally. There are two main types of saponins - pentacyclic triterpenoid and steroidal. Saponins are hydrolyzed into aglycones and sugars. Aglycones determine the saponin type. Many plants contain medicinally active saponins such as diosgenin from Dioscorea villosa wild yam. Saponins have expectorant, anti-inflammatory and immune-modulating properties and are used to treat various conditions.

1. SAPONINSSAPONINS

2. Introduction to SaponinsIntroduction to Saponins
 Saponins – plant constituent which bring aboutSaponins – plant constituent which bring about
frothing in an aqueous solutionfrothing in an aqueous solution. Historically. Historically
used for their detergent properties.used for their detergent properties.
 Saponins =Saponins = glycosidesglycosides
 Saponins haveSaponins have haemolytichaemolytic propertiesproperties  whenwhen
injected into the blood stream are highlyinjected into the blood stream are highly toxictoxic
(used as an arrow poisons).(used as an arrow poisons).
 When taken orally, saponins are harmless.When taken orally, saponins are harmless.
 2 Types of saponins are recognized –2 Types of saponins are recognized –
pentacyclic triterpenoidpentacyclic triterpenoid andand steroidal types.steroidal types.

3. Saponins = GlycosidesSaponins = Glycosides
ThereforeTherefore hydrolyzedhydrolyzed (by acids) to give an(by acids) to give an aglyconeaglycone andand
different sugars related to uronic acids.different sugars related to uronic acids.
 Aglycone calledAglycone called sapogenin (insoluble in water).sapogenin (insoluble in water).
 Structure of the sapogeninStructure of the sapogenin (aglycone) determines the(aglycone) determines the
type of saponintype of saponin
 ((steroidal or tetracyclicsteroidal or tetracyclic triterpenoidtriterpenoid andand pentacyclicpentacyclic
types).types).
 Both types of glycosides have a glycosidal linkage at C-Both types of glycosides have a glycosidal linkage at C-
3.3.
 Both types of saponins have aBoth types of saponins have a common biogenic origincommon biogenic origin
(mevalonic acid and isoprenoid units)

4. Pentacyclic Triterpenoid SaponinsPentacyclic Triterpenoid Saponins
 Rare in monocotyledons, but abundant inRare in monocotyledons, but abundant in
dicotyledons.dicotyledons.
 Sapogenin is attached to a chain of sugarSapogenin is attached to a chain of sugar
or uronic acid units (or both) often in theor uronic acid units (or both) often in the
C-3 position.C-3 position.

5. Steroidal SaponinsSteroidal Saponins
 Also calledAlso called tetracyclictetracyclic
triterpenoidstriterpenoids
 Found in manyFound in many
monocotyledons such asmonocotyledons such as
Wild yam (Wild yam (DioscoreaDioscorea
vilosavilosa).).
 Saponin – DiosgeninSaponin – Diosgenin..
 Also found inAlso found in
dicotyledons fenugreek.dicotyledons fenugreek.
 StrophanthusStrophanthus andand
DigitalisDigitalis contain bothcontain both
steroidal saponinssteroidal saponins
(glycosides) and cardiac(glycosides) and cardiac
glycosides.glycosides.

6. Significance of Steroidal SaponinsSignificance of Steroidal Saponins
 Generate much interestGenerate much interest
due to their relationshipdue to their relationship
with compounds such aswith compounds such as
sex hormones, cortisone,sex hormones, cortisone,
diuretic steroids, vitamindiuretic steroids, vitamin
D and the cardiacD and the cardiac
glycosides.glycosides.
 Some are used asSome are used as
starting materials for thestarting materials for the
synthesis of thesesynthesis of these
compounds.compounds.
 DiosgeninDiosgenin is the mainis the main
sapogenin used bysapogenin used by
industry .industry .

7. Biogenesis of Steroidal SaponinsBiogenesis of Steroidal Saponins
 Formed via theFormed via the
mevalonic acidmevalonic acid
pathway.pathway.
 During this pathway,During this pathway,
cholesterolcholesterol forms partforms part
of numerousof numerous
sapogenins (not all).sapogenins (not all).

8. Natural Steroids for the ProductionNatural Steroids for the Production
of Pharmaceuticalsof Pharmaceuticals
Natural products serve as starting points for theNatural products serve as starting points for the
partial synthesis of commercial products.partial synthesis of commercial products.
E.g. Cortisone – synthesized from Hecogenin.E.g. Cortisone – synthesized from Hecogenin.
Sex horomonesSex horomones (oral contraceptives) –(oral contraceptives) –
synthesized fromsynthesized from diosgenindiosgenin..
Diosgenin can also be used to makeDiosgenin can also be used to make
corticosteriodscorticosteriods..

9. Dioscorea villosaDioscorea villosa - Dioscoreaceae- Dioscoreaceae
 Definition:Definition: Wild yam isWild yam is
the underground rootsthe underground roots
and tubers ofand tubers of DioscoreaDioscorea
villosa.villosa.
 There is no suggestionThere is no suggestion
that the plant was usedthat the plant was used
as a contraceptive in theas a contraceptive in the
past. It has, howeverpast. It has, however
traditionally been used totraditionally been used to
treat menstrual, ovarian &treat menstrual, ovarian &
labour pains.labour pains.

10. Dioscorea villosaDioscorea villosa – Wild Yam– Wild Yam
 ConstituentsConstituents
 Steroidal saponinsSteroidal saponins
(mainly(mainly dioscindioscin))
 Phytosterols, alkaloids,Phytosterols, alkaloids,
tannins, starch.tannins, starch.
 Actions:Actions:
 Anti-spasmodic, anti-Anti-spasmodic, anti-
inflammatory, anti-rheumatic,inflammatory, anti-rheumatic,
diaphoretic, diuretic, qi tonic,diaphoretic, diuretic, qi tonic,
expectorantexpectorant
OTHER USESOTHER USES
 In Zulu traditions, wild yam isIn Zulu traditions, wild yam is
used to treat convulsions,used to treat convulsions,
epilepsy and hysteria.epilepsy and hysteria.
 Also used for colic, dry cough,Also used for colic, dry cough,
depression, diarrhoea,depression, diarrhoea,
diabetes, emotional weakness,diabetes, emotional weakness,
immune weakness, IBS, legimmune weakness, IBS, leg
pain, low sperm count, lungpain, low sperm count, lung
weakness, morning sickness,weakness, morning sickness,
neuralgia, night sweats, RA,neuralgia, night sweats, RA,
senility, spermatorrhoea,senility, spermatorrhoea,
threatened miscarriage.threatened miscarriage.
 TopicallyTopically: salve for eczema,: salve for eczema,
poultice for bruises andpoultice for bruises and
scabies.

11. Eleutherococcus senticosusEleutherococcus senticosus --
AralaiceaeAralaiceae
 Definition:Definition: SiberianSiberian
ginseng consists of theginseng consists of the
dried roots and rhizomesdried roots and rhizomes
ofof EleutherococcusEleutherococcus
senticosussenticosus..
 Unlike other medicinalUnlike other medicinal
herbs, this one is better atherbs, this one is better at
maintaining good healthmaintaining good health
rather than treatingrather than treating
illness.illness.

12. Siberian Ginseng –Siberian Ginseng – EleuthrococcusEleuthrococcus
 ConstituentsConstituents
 Triterpenoid saponinsTriterpenoid saponins
 GlycansGlycans
 PolysaccharidesPolysaccharides
 CoumarinsCoumarins
 LigninsLignins
ActionsActions
AdaptogenAdaptogen
TonicTonic
Immune-modulatorImmune-modulator
 UsesUses
 InsomniaInsomnia
 StressStress
 Surgery RecoverySurgery Recovery
 Chemotherapy patientsChemotherapy patients
 Cardiovascular diseaseCardiovascular disease
CONTRA-INDICATIONSCONTRA-INDICATIONS
Continuous useContinuous use
Hypertensive patientsHypertensive patients

13. Ginseng –Ginseng – Panax ginsengPanax ginseng
Definition:Definition: GinsengGinseng
consists of the driedconsists of the dried
or fresh roots ofor fresh roots of
Panax ginsengPanax ginseng. Also. Also
called Korean orcalled Korean or
Asian ginseng.Asian ginseng.

14. Panax ginsengPanax ginseng – Korean Ginseng– Korean Ginseng
 Active ConstituentsActive Constituents
 Triterpenoid saponinsTriterpenoid saponins
(ginsenosides), B vitamins,(ginsenosides), B vitamins,
selenium, phytosterols,selenium, phytosterols,
volatile oils.volatile oils.
 Medicinal Actions:Medicinal Actions:
 Adaptogenic tonic, anti-Adaptogenic tonic, anti-
inflammatory, anti-oxidant,inflammatory, anti-oxidant,
anti-spasmodic,anti-spasmodic,
cardiotonic,cardiotonic,
hepatoprotective, immune-hepatoprotective, immune-
stimulant, nervinestimulant, nervine
 Medicinal UsesMedicinal Uses
To Improve stamina, reactionTo Improve stamina, reaction
time, decrease hightime, decrease high
cholesterol.cholesterol.
Speeds up recovery time afterSpeeds up recovery time after
illness, childbirth andillness, childbirth and
surgery.surgery.
Aids, Alzheimer’s, anaemia,Aids, Alzheimer’s, anaemia,
appetite loss, chronicappetite loss, chronic
fatigue, depression,fatigue, depression,
infertility, memory loss,infertility, memory loss,
tacchycardia, PTSS.tacchycardia, PTSS.
Helps soften skin – anti-Helps soften skin – anti-
wrinkle products.wrinkle products.
Leaves can be used for fever.Leaves can be used for fever.
Effects –Effects – cumulativecumulative – work– work
best after a period of use,best after a period of use,
but should not forbut should not for

15. Panax ginsengPanax ginseng – Contra-indications– Contra-indications
 Should not be used ifShould not be used if
pregnant or lactating.pregnant or lactating.
 Not to be used inNot to be used in
cases of heat orcases of heat or
inflammation.inflammation.
 Should not be taken ifShould not be taken if
suffering from flu,suffering from flu,
fever, pneumonia,fever, pneumonia,
constipation orconstipation or
hypertension.hypertension.

16. Trigonella foenum-graecum –Trigonella foenum-graecum –
Fabaceae (Legume Family)Fabaceae (Legume Family)
 Definition:Definition: FenugreekFenugreek
consists of the driedconsists of the dried
seeds ofseeds of TrigonellaTrigonella
foenum-graecum.foenum-graecum.

17. Fenugreek -Fenugreek - TrigonellaTrigonella
 Active ConstituentsActive Constituents
 Steroidal saponinsSteroidal saponins
(diosgenin, yamogenin), B(diosgenin, yamogenin), B
vitamins, alkaloids,vitamins, alkaloids,
glycosides, flavonoids,glycosides, flavonoids,
courmarin, mucilage.courmarin, mucilage.
 NOTE:NOTE: Should not beShould not be
used to treat diabetesused to treat diabetes
without professionalwithout professional
supervision.supervision.
 Medicinal ActionsMedicinal Actions
 Anti-inflammatory,Anti-inflammatory,
carminative, antiseptic,carminative, antiseptic,
emollient, expectorant,emollient, expectorant,
hypoglycaemic,hypoglycaemic,
phytoeostrogenic.phytoeostrogenic.
 Medicinal Uses:Medicinal Uses:
 Stabilize blood glucoseStabilize blood glucose
levels, anorexia, catarrh,levels, anorexia, catarrh,
cough, sore throat.cough, sore throat.
Topically for boils, burns,Topically for boils, burns,
cellulitis, gargle for sorecellulitis, gargle for sore
throats, eyewash forthroats, eyewash for
inflammed eyes and ainflammed eyes and a
facial wash.facial wash.

18. Quillaja saponariaQuillaja saponaria – Rosaceae– Rosaceae
 Definition:Definition: QuillaiaQuillaia
bark consits of thebark consits of the
dried inner bark ofdried inner bark of
Quillaja saponaria.Quillaja saponaria.
It is also called SoapIt is also called Soap
bark, Quillaia orbark, Quillaia or
Panama wood.Panama wood.

19. Quillaia Bark - ConstituentsQuillaia Bark - Constituents
 Mixture of saponinsMixture of saponins
(10%)(10%)
 On hydrolysis: mainOn hydrolysis: main
sapogeninsapogenin  quillaicquillaic
acidacid && gypsogeningypsogenin..
 Also consists ofAlso consists of
sugars, starch andsugars, starch and
calcium oxalates.calcium oxalates.

20. Quillaia Bark - UsesQuillaia Bark - Uses
 Used as anUsed as an emulsifyingemulsifying agent.agent.

21. Glycyrrhiza glabra -Glycyrrhiza glabra - LeguminosaeLeguminosae
 Definition:Definition: LiquoriceLiquorice
consists of the driedconsists of the dried
unpeeled roots andunpeeled roots and
stolons ofstolons of GlycyrrhizaGlycyrrhiza
glabra.glabra.

22. GlycyrrhizaGlycyrrhiza – Cultivation &– Cultivation &
CollectionCollection
 Plants grow well in deepPlants grow well in deep
sandy, fertile soil.sandy, fertile soil.
 The underground partsThe underground parts
are collected in their 3are collected in their 3rdrd
-4-4thth
year.year.
 Dug up & washed.Dug up & washed.
 Some are peeled and cutSome are peeled and cut
shorter before drying;shorter before drying;
others are left unpeeled.others are left unpeeled.
 Imported in bales, orImported in bales, or
made into stick or blockmade into stick or block
liquorice (decoction).liquorice (decoction).

23. Glycyrrhiza glabraGlycyrrhiza glabra - Constituents- Constituents
 GlycrrhizinGlycrrhizin – responsible for the sweet taste.– responsible for the sweet taste.
 Glycerrhizic acidGlycerrhizic acid – triterpenoid saponin.– triterpenoid saponin.
 Flavonoids – responsible for yellow colour.Flavonoids – responsible for yellow colour.
 LiquiritinLiquiritin – a chalcone– a chalcone
 Sugars (glucose and sucrose), protein & starch.Sugars (glucose and sucrose), protein & starch.
 GlycyramarinGlycyramarin – bitter principles (mostly in outer– bitter principles (mostly in outer
tissue – removed in peeled varieties)tissue – removed in peeled varieties)

24. Glycyrrhiza glabraGlycyrrhiza glabra - Adulterants- Adulterants
 Glycyrrhiza uralensisGlycyrrhiza uralensis
 Glycyrrhiza hirsutuGlycyrrhiza hirsutu
 Glycyrrhiza echinataGlycyrrhiza echinata
 GlycyrrhizaGlycyrrhiza
macedoniamacedonia
 Glycyrrhiza pallidifloraGlycyrrhiza pallidiflora

25. Glycyrrhiza glabraGlycyrrhiza glabra ––
Actions & UsesActions & Uses
 ActionsActions
 DemulcentDemulcent
 ExpectorantExpectorant
 Anti-microbial/anti-viralAnti-microbial/anti-viral
 Anti-spasmodicAnti-spasmodic
 Anti-UlcerogenicAnti-Ulcerogenic
 UsesUses
 Flavouring agentFlavouring agent
 RARA
 Addison’s diseaseAddison’s disease
 Inflammatory conditionsInflammatory conditions
 Peptic ulcersPeptic ulcers

26. Polygala senegaPolygala senega - Polygalaceae- Polygalaceae
 Definition:Definition: SenegaSenega
consists of the driedconsists of the dried
rootstock and root ofrootstock and root of
Polygala senegaPolygala senega..

27. Polygala senegaPolygala senega – Constituents– Constituents
 Triterpenoid SaponinsTriterpenoid Saponins
 Main saponin –Main saponin – seneginsenegin
consisting ofconsisting of senegeninsenegenin
senegenic acidsenegenic acid
polygalic acidpolygalic acid
Also contains sorbitol (sweet taste), sucrose, fatAlso contains sorbitol (sweet taste), sucrose, fat
and sterols.and sterols.

28. Polygala senegaPolygala senega - Adulterants- Adulterants
 White senega –White senega – PolygalaPolygala
albaalba
 Southern senega –Southern senega –
Polygala boykiniPolygala boykini
 Pakistan senega –Pakistan senega – GlinusGlinus
oppositifoliusoppositifolius
 Turkey senega –Turkey senega –
Polygala pruinosaPolygala pruinosa

29. Polygala senegaPolygala senega - Uses- Uses
 ActionsActions
 Stimulant expectorantStimulant expectorant
 UsesUses
 Chronic bronchitisChronic bronchitis
TRADITIONAL USESTRADITIONAL USES
First used by the NativeFirst used by the Native
American Indians as aAmerican Indians as a
remedy for snake-bite. Itremedy for snake-bite. It
was later used by thewas later used by the
English as cure for pleurisyEnglish as cure for pleurisy
and pneumonia.and pneumonia.

30. Genitana luteaGenitana lutea - Gentianaceae- Gentianaceae
 Definition:Definition: GentianGentian
consists of the dried,consists of the dried,
fermented roots andfermented roots and
rhizomes of therhizomes of the
yellow gentian,yellow gentian,
Gentiana luteaGentiana lutea..

31. GentianaGentiana ––
Collection & PreparationCollection & Preparation
 In Autumn the Roots are dug up in plants 2-5 years old.In Autumn the Roots are dug up in plants 2-5 years old.
 There is no demand for the unfermented ‘white’ gentian,There is no demand for the unfermented ‘white’ gentian,
all commercial drugs consist of the fermented ‘red’all commercial drugs consist of the fermented ‘red’
variety.variety.
 Herb is made into heaps, packed on a hillside andHerb is made into heaps, packed on a hillside and
occasionally covered with earth and left there for someoccasionally covered with earth and left there for some
time.time.
 Washed and cut into slices.Washed and cut into slices.
 Dried: open air and then in sheds.Dried: open air and then in sheds.
 When prepared this way, the herb becomes much darkerWhen prepared this way, the herb becomes much darker
in colour (fermented), loses some of its bitterness andin colour (fermented), loses some of its bitterness and

32. Gentiana luteaGentiana lutea
 Allied DrugsAllied Drugs
 Gentiana purpureaGentiana purpurea
 Gentiana pannonicaGentiana pannonica
 Gentiana punctataGentiana punctata
 Gentiana kurrooGentiana kurroo
 Picrohiza kurrooPicrohiza kurroo
 AdulterantsAdulterants
 Rumex alpinusRumex alpinus rhizomesrhizomes
(give a positive test for(give a positive test for
anthraquinones).anthraquinones).
 Veratrum albumVeratrum album

33. Gentiana luteaGentiana lutea - Constituents- Constituents
 GentiopicrosideGentiopicroside andand
gentiogeningentiogenin
 Also bitter glycosides,Also bitter glycosides,
alkaloids, yellowalkaloids, yellow
colouring matter,colouring matter,
sugars, pectin andsugars, pectin and
fixed oil.fixed oil.

34. Gentiana luteaGentiana lutea - Uses- Uses
 ActionsActions
 BitterBitter
 UsesUses
 Bitter tonicBitter tonic
 Liver disordersLiver disorders

35. Picrasma excelsaPicrasma excelsa - Simaroubaceae- Simaroubaceae
 Quassia woodQuassia wood
consists of the stemconsists of the stem
wood ofwood of PicrasmaPicrasma
excelsaexcelsa, commercially, commercially
known as Jamaicaknown as Jamaica
quassia.quassia.

36. Picrasma excelsaPicrasma excelsa - Constituents- Constituents
 Quassia consits ofQuassia consits of
 Triterpenoid saponin –Triterpenoid saponin –
quassinquassin (bitter(bitter
principle)principle)
 NeoquassinNeoquassin
USESUSES
Bitter tonicBitter tonic
InsecticideInsecticide
Enema for thread wormsEnema for thread worms

37. Saponins: SummarySaponins: Summary
 2 types2 types
 Wild Yam,Wild Yam,
Fenugreek, GinsengFenugreek, Ginseng
& Siberian Ginseng,& Siberian Ginseng,
Gentian, Liquorice,Gentian, Liquorice,
Quassia, Quillaia andQuassia, Quillaia and
SenegaSenega
Generally responsibleGenerally responsible
for an expectorantfor an expectorant
action.action.