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The document provides definitions and information about key chemistry concepts including the structure of atoms, elements, the periodic table, properties of metals and nonmetals, and types of compounds. It defines terms like isotope, element, proton, neutron, electron, atomic number, mass number, and describes patterns in the periodic table including families of elements and their typical properties. It also lists different groups of elements and some common compounds.
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The document discusses properties of elements in the periodic table. It explains that elements in the same group have similar properties, while the atomic number decreases as you read from left to right along a period. It also states that the melting and boiling points of beryllium and magnesium are likely to be similar because they belong to the same group of metals.
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Ionic bonding occurs through the electrostatic attraction between oppositely charged ions. Cations form when metals lose electrons, while anions form when nonmetals gain electrons. Ionic bonds are usually seen between metals and nonmetals. Ionic crystals form ordered structures with ions packed together. Ionic crystals have high melting points, are hard, and conduct electricity when molten or dissolved due to the ions being able to move.
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Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity, are malleable and ductile allowing them to be formed into sheets and wires, have a metallic luster, and are typically solids at room temperature. Non-metals are generally poor conductors of heat and electricity, are brittle if solid, lack metallic luster, and can exist as solids, liquids, or gases at room temperature. The document outlines key properties that distinguish metals from non-metals.
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Ions are atoms that have gained or lost electrons to become charged. Cations have a positive charge from losing electrons while anions have a negative charge from gaining electrons. Atoms form stable ions by gaining or losing electrons to achieve a full outer electron shell. Isotopes are versions of an element with different numbers of neutrons. Some isotopes are stable while others are unstable. Isotopes can be written with the element name and mass number, such as Carbon-14. The average atomic mass shown on the periodic table is calculated from the relative abundances of naturally occurring isotopes.
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Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity, are malleable and ductile allowing them to be formed into sheets and wires, have a metallic luster, and are typically solids at room temperature. Non-metals are generally poor conductors of heat and electricity, are brittle if solid, lack metallic luster, and can exist as solids, liquids, or gases at room temperature. The document outlines key properties that distinguish metals from non-metals.
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3) Ionic compounds have crystalline structures and are strong conductors when molten or dissolved, due to the movement of ions.
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Atoms form ions through gaining or losing electrons to achieve stable electron configurations. Oppositely charged ions attract and bond ionically, forming ionic compounds. Ionic compounds are named by listing the metal first followed by the nonmetal with an "-ide" ending. Transition metals require indicating their ionic state with Roman numerals. Polyatomic ions, like sulfate and nitrate, are also present in ionic compounds and identified by non-"-ide" endings. Covalent compounds form between nonmetals which share electrons in a covalent bond.
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Metallic bonding is the strong attraction between closely packed positive metal ions and delocalized electrons. This bonding gives metals high melting and boiling points. Metals are good conductors of heat and electricity due to their delocalized electrons, which are free to move and transfer energy. Their dense, closely packed atomic structure results in high density as well as malleability and ductility, as the layers of atoms can easily slide past one another.
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An ionic compound is formed when an atom gains or loses electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration. Ions with opposite charges are attracted to each other, forming an ionic bond. Transition metals can form multiple stable ionic states due to their complex electron configurations. Polyatomic ions contain multiple atoms that travel together and are indicated using brackets. Covalent bonds form between non-metal atoms by sharing electrons rather than transferring them.
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The periodic table organizes elements according to increasing atomic number and displays recurring trends in their chemical and physical properties. Dmitri Mendeleev arranged the elements in order of atomic mass, leaving gaps for undiscovered elements, while Henry Moseley determined that atomic number best indicates an element's position. Elements are classified as metals, nonmetals, and metalloids based on their locations, and each element's unique properties derive from its number of protons and valence electrons.
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This document provides an overview of quantum theory and periodicity in chemistry. It discusses the quantum mechanical model of the atom, quantum numbers, electron configurations, orbital shapes and orientations. It also covers periodic trends, ion formation, exceptions to predicted configurations, and periodic properties. Key topics include the electron cloud model, principal and angular momentum quantum numbers, s, p, d and f orbitals, writing configurations, ion charges, and how periodic trends relate to electron configurations.
Metals
The document discusses the properties and structure of metals. Metals have a metallic lattice structure where the metal cations are arranged in a close-packed pattern and delocalized electrons fill the space between them. This metallic bonding gives metals their characteristic properties, such as lustrous appearance, malleability, ductility, and high thermal and electrical conductivity. The structure of metals can be modified through processes like work hardening, heat treatment, and alloying to achieve desired material properties for different applications.
Periodic table - periodic properties
Periodic table and periodic properties discusses the development and features of the periodic table. It describes how early scientists like Dobereiner, Newlands, and Mendeleev organized elements and recognized periodic trends before the modern periodic table. The document then outlines the structure and classifications of the modern periodic table, including periods, groups, blocks, and representative and transition metals. It also explains important periodic properties such as atomic and ionic radii, ionization energy, and effective nuclear charge and how they vary predictably across the table.
Properties of metals slides
The document describes various properties of metals. It discusses the physical properties of metals, including their high melting and boiling points, malleability, ductility, and ability to conduct heat and electricity well. It also describes alloys as mixtures of metals that are stronger than pure metals. Additionally, the document outlines some chemical properties of metals, such as their reactivity patterns and reactions with water, steam, and acids according to the reactivity series. It provides examples of equations to represent these reactions.
Periodic Table.pptx
The document discusses the electronic configuration of elements. It explains that the electronic configuration is determined by the Aufbau principle, Pauli exclusion principle, and Hund's rule. The Aufbau principle states that electrons fill into the lowest available energy orbitals first. The Pauli exclusion principle indicates that each orbital can hold two electrons of opposite spin. Hund's rule specifies that electrons will occupy different orbitals with parallel spins before pairing. Diagrams are provided to illustrate the electronic configurations of hydrogen, helium, lithium, beryllium, and boron.
Module 11 periodic table
- The periodic table arranges elements vertically into groups and horizontally into periods based on their atomic structure.
- Elements in the same group have similar properties because they have the same number of electrons in their outer shell. Elements in the same period have the same number of electron shells.
- The periodic table is divided into metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. Metals are usually solids and conduct electricity well. Nonmetals are usually brittle and do not conduct electricity well.
- Atoms can form ions by gaining or losing electrons to fill their outer shell. Cations are positively charged ions formed when atoms lose electrons. Anions are negatively charged ions formed when atoms gain electrons.
Periodic Table
Dmitri Mendeleev arranged the elements in the periodic table based on their chemical properties and left spaces for elements that were yet to be discovered. He was able to predict properties of these unknown elements accurately, including scandium, gallium, and germanium, which were later discovered with properties matching his predictions.
Metals
The document discusses the structure and properties of metals. Metals have a metallic lattice structure where the metal atoms are arranged in a regular pattern with their valence electrons delocalized in a "sea of electrons". This structure results in several properties including conductivity of heat and electricity, malleability, lustrous appearance, and high melting points. The structure can be modified through processes like work hardening, heat treatment, and alloying to achieve desired material properties for different applications.
Metalsnonmetalsmetalloids presentation
Metals, nonmetals, and metalloids can be distinguished by their physical properties. Metals are typically solids, shiny, malleable, and good conductors of heat and electricity. Nonmetals may be solids, liquids, or gases, have a dull luster, and are poor conductors. Metalloids have properties in between metals and nonmetals, and some are useful semiconductors. Most metals are found combined with other elements in minerals and ores in the Earth's crust. Carbon is unusual in that it can form graphite, which is brittle, or diamonds, the hardest natural material, depending on the arrangement of carbon atoms.
The periodic table
The document summarizes key aspects of the periodic table. It describes the elements hydrogen and helium as the lightest and most abundant in the universe. It also notes that atoms are electrically neutral, with negative charges from electrons balancing out the positive nucleus. Further, it provides details on protons, neutrons, and electrons as well as how elements are organized by atomic number and mass. Key groups of elements like metals, nonmetals, transition metals, and metalloids are outlined according to their typical properties.
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Chpt.2.2
The flow of energy in an ecosystem begins with autotrophs, such as plants, which use energy from the sun to produce their own food through photosynthesis. Heterotrophs, including herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and decomposers then obtain energy by consuming autotrophs and other organisms. This energy is transferred between trophic levels in a food chain and food web, with less energy being available at higher trophic levels due to energy being lost as heat at each transfer.
Chpt.2.1
Ecology is the scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environments. It reveals the interrelationships between living (biotic) and nonliving (abiotic) parts of the world. Key concepts in ecology include the biosphere, biotic factors, abiotic factors, levels of organization (organism, population, community, ecosystem, biome, biosphere), habitats, niches, and symbiosis (commensalism, mutualism, parasitism). Ecology combines information from various sciences to understand these relationships.
Chpt. 17.3- Domains and Kingdoms
The document discusses different systems for classifying life into kingdoms and domains. It describes the three domain system of Bacteria, Archaea and Eukarya. It also outlines the six kingdom system of Bacteria, Archaea, Protista, Plantae, Fungi and Animalia. Finally, it mentions the traditional five kingdom system of Monera, Protista, Plantae, Fungi and Animalia. It provides details about the defining characteristics of each domain and kingdom.
Chpt. 17.2 Modern Classification
Cladograms are branching diagrams that represent the proposed evolutionary history of a species or group, with closer branches indicating that organisms have more traits in common. They are a modern method of classification that shows evolutionary relationships rather than just taxonomic rankings.
Chpt. 17.1-History of Classification
Aristotle first classified organisms as either animals or plants, with plants grouped by size and animals by whether they had blood. Linnaeus broadened Aristotle's system and created the first formal taxonomy, grouping organisms into a binominal nomenclature with a genus and species name. The taxonomic categories from most specific to broad are species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, kingdom, and domain.
Chpt.15.2-Evidence of Change
There are several ways that scientists provide evidence of evolution, including comparative anatomy, comparative embryology, and fossils. Comparative anatomy looks at homologous and analogous structures between species, while comparative embryology examines similarities in development. Fossils provide direct evidence of extinct species and how they changed over time. Scientists use both relative dating of fossils layers and radioactive dating to determine the age of fossils and track changes in species. Adaptations like camouflage and mimicry help organisms survive and reproduce more successfully.
Chpt. 15.1
Charles Darwin developed the theory of evolution by natural selection based on his observations as a naturalist aboard the HMS Beagle in the 1830s. While visiting the Galapagos Islands, Darwin noticed that related but distinct animal species inhabited different islands. He later concluded that populations on the mainland evolved over generations as they adapted to their local environments, with better adapted traits being passed down. Darwin's theory proposed that natural selection drives evolution, as organisms better suited to their environment will survive and reproduce, passing on their favorable traits.
Chapter 11.3 notes
A karyotype is a micrograph that arranges homologous chromosome pairs in decreasing size order. It is used to study chromosomes stained during cell metaphase. Nondisjunction is a cell division error where sister chromatids do not separate properly, which can cause conditions like Down syndrome.
Chpt. 11.2 complex inheritance leftovers
Sickle-cell anemia is an autosomal recessive trait common in those with African and Mediterranean ancestry. It causes abnormally shaped red blood cells, impaired blood flow, tissue damage, and health issues. Sex is determined by the 23rd pair of chromosomes - females have XX and males have XY. The X chromosome carries many genes needed for development in both sexes. To compensate for having two X chromosomes, females inactivate one randomly. Sex-linked traits are on the X chromosome and are always expressed if recessive in females. Muscular dystrophy is an X-linked recessive disease. Polygenic traits like skin and eye color are influenced by two or more genes and result in a range of intermediate phenotypes.
Incomplete codominance multiple_alleles
The document discusses different patterns of inheritance beyond simple dominance:
1) Incomplete dominance, where the heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between the homozygous phenotypes. Examples include snapdragons and carnations.
2) Codominance, where both alleles are expressed in the heterozygote rather than blending. Examples include checkered chickens, roan horses, and variegated clover.
3) Multiple alleles, where more than two alleles control a trait. Examples include human blood types and coat colors in rabbits.
10.2 mendelian genetics
Gregor Mendel conducted the first scientific studies of heredity by breeding pea plants. He found that traits are transmitted from parents to offspring through discrete units called alleles. Through his experiments with monohybrid and dihybrid crosses, Mendel established the laws of segregation, dominance, and independent assortment. These laws describe the basic principles of genetic inheritance and provided the foundation for the modern science of genetics.
Chapter 12.4 gene regulation & mutation
This document summarizes gene regulation and mutation. It explains that gene regulation allows organisms to control which genes are transcribed in response to the environment, using operons in prokaryotes. Mutation is a change in the DNA sequence that can cause changes in proteins. There are two main types of mutations: point mutations which substitute a single nucleotide, and frameshift mutations which insert or delete nucleotides, affecting all subsequent amino acids. Mutations can be caused by environmental factors like radiation or chemicals and may be passed to offspring.
Chapter 12.3 dna,rna and protein
DNA contains the genetic code that is transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) which is then translated into proteins. There are three main types of RNA - mRNA carries the genetic code from DNA to the ribosome for protein production. Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) helps join mRNA to transfer RNA (tRNA) during protein synthesis. TRNA transports amino acids to the ribosome where they are linked together based on the mRNA codon sequence.
Chapter 12.2 dna replication
DNA replication is a semiconservative process where the parental DNA strands separate and each serves as a template to produce two new DNA molecules, each with one original and one new strand. It occurs in three stages: unwinding, base pairing, and joining. During unwinding, enzymes separate the double helix and add RNA primers. Then, DNA polymerase adds complementary bases to each new strand by matching A-T and C-G. The lagging strand replicates in fragments that are later joined.
Chapter 12.1 molecular genetics
The document summarizes early discoveries about DNA and its structure. Frederick Griffith discovered transformation could occur between bacterial strains. Avery, MacLeod and McCarty showed that DNA was the transforming molecule. Hershey and Chase provided evidence that DNA, not protein, was the genetic material of viruses. Chargaff discovered base pairing rules for DNA. Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins used X-ray crystallography to study DNA structure. Watson and Crick then proposed the double helix model of DNA structure based on Chargaff's rules and Franklin and Wilkins' research.
Meiosis
Meiosis is a type of cell division that produces gametes, such as sperm and egg cells, with half the normal number of chromosomes. It involves two cell divisions: Meiosis I and Meiosis II. In Meiosis I, homologous chromosomes pair up and separate, reducing the chromosome number by half. Meiosis II then separates the sister chromatids, resulting in four haploid daughter cells each with a single set of chromosomes. This ensures genetic variation and allows for sexual reproduction where gametes from two individuals combine to form a diploid zygote.
Chpt9.3 cell cycle regulation
The document summarizes key aspects of cell cycle regulation and cancer. It discusses that cells have regulatory checkpoints to monitor the cell cycle. Cancer occurs when there is a failure of regulation, resulting in uncontrolled growth and division that can crowd out normal cells. Cancer cells also demonstrate a lack of contact inhibition and continue dividing even when touching other cells. Cancer is caused by mutations in DNA that control the cell cycle and proteins regulating division.
Chpt9.1 cellular growth
The document discusses cell size and growth. It notes that as cell size increases, volume increases much faster than surface area. This causes issues because diffusion of nutrients and waste becomes inefficient over large distances. The surface area to volume ratio decreases as cell size doubles, so the plasma membrane cannot absorb enough oxygen and nutrients. To prevent starvation or toxicity from waste buildup, cells divide when their size limits efficient diffusion. The document also provides examples of chromosome numbers in different organisms.
Chpt9.2 mitosis
The document summarizes the stages of the cell cycle including interphase and mitosis. Interphase consists of G1, S, and G2 phases where the cell grows and replicates its DNA. Mitosis is then described in five stages: prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase, and cytokinesis. During these stages, the chromosomes condense and separate with nuclear and cell division occurring to form two daughter cells each with a full set of chromosomes.
Chapter 8 3
This document summarizes cellular respiration. It describes that cellular respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis and occurs in both plant and animal cells using mitochondria. Aerobic respiration uses oxygen and has three stages - glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain. Anaerobic respiration occurs without oxygen through fermentation. Aerobic respiration produces more ATP than anaerobic respiration. The overall equation shows that glucose breakdown produces ATP through the process of cellular respiration.
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