This document summarizes the imaging findings in mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS). It describes abnormalities seen in the skeletal system including dysostosis multiplex, thickened skull bones, abnormal sella turcica shape, and abnormalities in the spine, ribs, pelvis and long bones. It also describes brain abnormalities such as white matter lesions, perivascular space enlargement and brain atrophy. Other findings discussed include otitis media, airway obstruction, corneal clouding and joint abnormalities. The purpose is to evaluate the common radiological manifestations of MPS to aid in diagnosis.

2.  To describe the imaging findings common to
different types of MPS.
 To describe multiplex dysostosis encountered in the
axial and appendicular skeleton.
 To evaluate neuroradiological features of MPS,
including brain abnormal signal intensity and
atrophy.
 To evaluate important otorhinolaryngological
problems, such as otitis media and airways
obstruction.

3.  The mucopolysaccharidoses (MPS) are a group of
heritable lysosomal storage disorders caused by a
deficiency in glycosaminoglycan (GAG)-degrading
enzymes.
 It results in accumulation of unprocessed or partly
processed GAGs—dermatan sulphate, heparan
sulphate, keratan sulphate and chondroitin
sulphate—in lysosomes causing progressive damage
of affected tissues, including heart, respiratory
system, bones, joints and central nervous system.

8. Child with mucopolysaccharidosis
showing an acrocephalic head, coarse
facial features, a depressed nasal
bridge and a protuberant abdomen.

9. Hurler disease

10.  Transmission occurs in an autosomal recessive
fashion, except for MPS II, which is X-linked.
 The typical symptoms, encountered in the
majority of MPS, include organomegaly,
dysostosis multiplex, mental retardation and
developmental delay. Otological (otitis media)
and respiratory (airway obstruction) problems
can also be present.
 Other manifestations include impaired vision
(corneal clouding and photophobia) and
cardiovascular involvement (myocardial
hypertrophy, systolic dysfunction and valve
dysfunction).

11.  A combination of clinical picture and analysis of
urinary GAGs is usually performed to achieve the
diagnosis of MPS, even though this method
cannot recognise subtypes;
 Definitive diagnosis is usually possible through
measuring enzyme activity in cultured fibroblasts
or leukocytes.

12.  Treatment consists mainly of symptomatic and
supportive care, including decompression of the
craniocervical narrowing, tracheostomy insertion
and corneal transplantation.
 In recent years the development of new
therapies—represented by enzyme replacement
therapies, substrate inhibition therapy and
haematopoietic cell transplantation—have
changed the treatment of these patients, with a
fundamental shift in the approach from
symptomatic management to therapeutic
intervention.

15.  The most important radiological findings occur in
the skeletal system with multiplex dysostosis ,a
complex of anomalies involving several bones
,dominating the clinical picture in MPS IV and
MPS VI.

16. Skull Macrocephaly with dolicocephaly
Vertical frontal crest
early closure of sagittal and lambdoid
sutures
Abnormal J-shaped sella turcica
Thickened cortical bone
Facial anomalies
Lack of pneumatization of mastoid
Process cells and of paranasal cavities
Obtuse mandibular angle with
prognatism
Teeth widely spaced
Temporomandibular joint ankylosis
dentigerous cysts,
macroglossia, calcified stylohyoid
ligament

17.  J SHAPED SELLA
TURCICA:
 Flattened
tuberculum
sellae with
a normal dorsal
sellae.

18. J-shaped sella (white arrow)and some molars
unerupted and angulated in both the jaws.
Normal sella
J shaped sella

19. The cortical bone of the skull is thickened. The
premature closure of the sagittal suture
is responsible for the development of
macrocephaly with dolicocephaly, plus the
metopic
perisutural hyperostosis causes a vertical
frontal crest.

20. Early Closure Of Sagittal Sutures Seen.

22. Thorax Paddle-shaped or oar-shaped
ribs
(widened anteriorly and
tapered posteriorly)
Short and thickened clavicles
Less commonly small scapulae,
usually with flattening of the
glenoid cavities & short
sternum.

23. PADDLE OR OAR SHAPED ribs (white
arrowheads) tapered proximally
and wider distally

24.  broad and short clavicles

25. Spine Craniovertebral junction: atlantoaxial
instability, stenosis and compression
of the spinal cord
Thoracolumbar spine: gibbus
Malformations of the vertebral bodies
Posterior scalloping with widened
interpedicular distance.

26. Flat and Rounded vertebral bodies

27. platyspondylia with
“wedge-shaped”deformity
“anterior beaking”with
posterior scalloping due to
deficient
Anterosuperior corner

28.  At the craniovertebral junction level, the most
important abnormalities are:
 Odontoid process dysplasia-hypoplasia;
 Atlantoaxial instability or subluxation;
 Periodontoid tissue and ligaments thickening; &
spinal stenosis.

29.  Patients with Hurler syndrome (MPS I) and
Morquio syndrome (MPS IV) appear to have the
highest risk of developing odontoid hypoplasia.

30. Marked kyphoscoliotic deformation of the
spine, with disc hernias and vertebral bodies
deformities.

31. Narrowing of the craniocervical junction (white arrow), vertebral bodies
deformities (curved white arrow) and nucleus pulposus hypotrophy (white
arrowhead) are well depicted.

32. cervicothoracic spine show severe kypho-scoliosis with
narrowing of the spinal canal

33. Lateral radiograph shows
hypoplastic odontoid
process (arrow).

34. Pelvis Rounded iliac wings
Inferior tapering of the ileum
Hip dysplasia
Poorly developed acetabulum
Underdevelopment of the medial
portion of the proximal femoral
epiphysis
Coxa valga

35. Poorly formed acetabulum
Rounded iliac wings, inferior tapering of
the ilea with a poorly developed
acetabulum
underdeveloped
medial portion of the proximal
femoral epiphysis
normal

36. Long bones Mildly hypoplastic epiphyses
Proximal humeral notching
Long and narrow femoral neck
Genu valgum
Humeral neck varus (hatchet-
shaped humerus),
Wide humeral midshaft, distal
radius and ulnar physes tilt
toward each other

37.  Diaphyses are shortened and curved in the distal
part; the epiphyses are slightly hypoplastic and
thinned cortically with osteoporosis.
 Notching of the proximal part of the humerus, &
the long and narrow aspect of the femoral neck
 Hypoplasia of the lateral tibial hemiplate,
resulting in genu valgum .

38. proximal humeral
notching
Long and narrow femoral
neck
frayed and
flared tibial metaphyses

39.  All segments, particularly those of the upper
limb, are short and squat; they also have
hypoplastic epiphyses, cortical thinning and
flaring of the diaphyseal canal.

40.  In the knee joint in adulthood an advanced state
of arthrosis can be recognised because of the
considerable delamination of articular cartilage.
These patients are potential surgical candidates
for total knee arthroplasty .

41. On MRI images, the
growth plate is irregularly
enlarged, with multiple
defects and erosions well
depicted on coronal
images.
Delay in epiphyseal
ossification may give
appearance of relatively
widened physis

42. Hands and feet V-shaped deformity of the
hypoplastic distal ulna and radius
Hypoplastic and irregularly
shaped carpal and tarsal bones
Proximal pointed metacarpals
and metatarsals
Bullet-shaped phalanges

43. normal
small irregular
carpal bones
broad and
proximally pointed short
metacarpals
bullet-shaped phalanges

44. Anteroposterior radiograph
shows that distal radial and
ulnar physes tilt toward each
other (arrows).

45. normal
normal
V-shaped hypoplastic distal ulna and
radius

46.  Short stature, thought to be caused by a
disruption in the programmed maturation of the
chondrocyte at the level of the growth plate ,is a
common feature in all types of MPS, although it
may be mild or under-recognized in the
attenuated forms.

47.  Joint stiffness and contractures:
 Joint stiffness and contractures can be found in
all types of MPS, except for MPS IV (Morquio
syndrome) and MPS IX .
 These abnormalities are felt to arise secondary
to infiltration by GAGs of the ligaments, tendons,
joint capsules and other soft tissues in
combination with epiphyseal and metaphyseal
deformities owing to defective skeletal
remodelling.

48.  In contrast to patients with inflammatory
arthritis, patients with MPS are more likely to
have DIP joint involvement rather than PIP or
MCP joint involvement.

49.  CTS is uncommon in childhood and its
occurrence in a paediatric patient should prompt
the physician to consider the possibility of an
MPS, which accounts for more than one-half of
the cases in this age group..
 The median nerve compression occurs as a result
of thickening of the flexor retinaculum and the
tissues around the tendon sheaths.

50.  Trigger fingers in association with CTS are well
recognized in patients with MPS . Triggering
occurs as a result of GAG deposits in the capsular
tissues of the joints or flexor tendons .

51.  The functionality of the fingers is compromised
because of the bone alterations and the
thickening of the subcutaneous tissues, resulting
in a failure of a complete extension of the fingers
with a “claw hand ” deformity.

52. Mild flexion contractures of the
fingers in
Hurler Scheie syndrome.

53.  Joint stiffness is characteristic of most types of
MPS; however, joint hypermobility is seen in the
majority of patients with Morquio syndrome
(MPS IV) . The hypermobility results from
metaphyseal deformities, hypoplasia of the
bones and degradation of connective tissues
around the joint.
 The combination of joint hypermobility and
odontoid hypoplasia in these patients is thought
to be responsible for the very high incidence of
atlanto-axial subluxation.

54.  The most important otorhinolaryngological
problems are rhinitis, otitis media, and upper
and lower airway obstruction.

55. Thickened tympanic membrane
Opacification of mastoid
and middle ear cavity
Poor pneumatization of
sphenoidal bone

56. Flattened and deformed mandibular
condyles
Poor pneumatization of mastoid sinus
cavities and impacted teeth

57.  The pathological accumulation of
mucopolysaccharides within perivascular spaces
and neuroaxonal units adversely affect the
myelin turnover in our CNS.

58.  Diffuse white matter lesions usually show a
symmetrical periventricular distribution may
represent gliosis as the age increases.
 Focal white matter lesions consist of multiple
small spot-like areas isointense to the
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) on fluid attenuated
inversion recovery (FLAIR), T2-weighted and T1-
weighted sequences because of perivascular
space enlargement.

59.  The corpus callosum, best depicted on sagittal
images, is sometimes the only location of these
lesions.
 A typical imaging feature in the brain of patients
with MPS is the “honeycomb-like” appearance in
the basal ganglia and thalami.

60.  first concerns the accumulation of GAGs in
neurons and astrocytes, leading to neuronal loss
and demyelination
 another theory maintains that the basal ganglia
appearance could be related to an increase of
fluid content in the periventricular spaces.

61.  The pathogenesis of enlargement of perivascular
spaces is not entirely clear .
 Two main hypotheses have been formulated:
accumulation of GAG around vessels and
impairment of cerebrospinal fluid reabsorption
(caused by the deposit of mucopolysaccharides
in the leptomeninges).

62. In a 12 year old patient ,brain show symmetrically diffuse increased signal intensity of
periventricular white matter, with enlargement of subarachnoid spaces in the
middle cranial fossa and ventriculomegaly. Midsagittal T2-weighted scan shows dilated
perivascular spaces within the corpus callosum

63. in a 15 year old patient,,Cribriform focal lesions of periventricular white matter—due to
enlarged perivascular spaces—with ventricular enlargement.
White matter lesions in the corpuscallosum are well depicted by the mid-sagittal T2-weighted
image.

64. In a 17 year old patient, symmetrical
focal areas of hyperintensity in the
lenticular nucleus (black arrow)and in
the thalamus (black arrowhead)
because of enlarged perivascular
spaces called as HONEY COMBING .
PERIVENTRICULAR
WHITE MATTER CHANGES IN
THE SAME PATIENT.

65. BRAIN ATROPHY SEEN IN 17 YEAR OLD MALE PATIENT.

66.  Compression of the spinal cord most frequently
occurs at the atlanto-axial (C1-C2) joint especially
affecting patients with MPS IV and VI.
 The most important one is atlanto-axial subluxation,
which is the result of several causes: laxity of the
transverse ligament, dural thickening resulting from
deposition of collagen and GAGs, hypoplasia or
absence of the odontoid, anterior soft tissue mass
of the odontoid (representing a combination of
unossified fibrocartilage and reactive changes) and
indentation of the posterior arch of C1.

67.  Chronic subluxation of the C1-C2 level may lead
to a ligamentous hypertrophy and to further
narrowing in the region of the craniocervical
junction with the consequence of additional cord
compression.

68. Sagittal
T2-weighted at the craniocervical
Junction in a patient affected by
MPSVI before(b)and after(d) the
Decompressive surgical procedure.
T2 hypointense lesion surrounding the
Odontoid process (white
arrowhead,b)with marked narrowing of
the foramen magnum and cord
compression; the stenosis improved
moderately after surgery.
Note also the abnormal J-shaped
Sella (white arrow).

72.  Orbital abnormalities can be found:
 Thickening of the sclera and of the optic nerve
sheath, optic canal narrowing and optic nerve
atrophy.

74.  Another imaging feature reported in literature is
the closed encephalocele ; regarding this point,
the presence of parenchymal/meningeal
herniation at the level of the anterior or middle
cranial fossa has been described as a
characteristic neuroradiological feature of
patients affected by MPS II.

75.  The term “closed cephalocele” has been
proposed to describe this skull abnormality
because the protrusion of intracranial structures
occurs without a detectable bone defect.
 CT and MRI reveal a variable sized pouch filled
with brain parenchyma and cerebrospinal fluid,
delimited by a bone wall and usually located in
the anterior cranial fossa at the level of the
lamina cribrosa as a weak area of the skull.

78.  In Hurler syndrome, the diagnosis is made
between 6-24 months in the presence of
hepatosplenomegaly, skeletal deformity, coarse
facial features, corneal clouding, joint stiffness,
and short stature. Hearing loss is common and
developmental delay, with moderate mental
retardation, is present.

79.  Morquio syndrome, on the other hand, is
characterized by short-trunk dwarfism, corneal
deposits, skeletal dysplasia, and preservation of
intelligence. Extraskeletal manifestations may
include hepatomegaly, cardiac valvular lesions,
and small teeth with caries formation.

82.  Normal variant.
 Optic chiasm glioma– if chiasmatic sulcus very
depressed (W- or omega-shaped sella).
 Neurofibromatosis.
 Achondroplasia.

83.  Chronic hydrocephalus– enlarged anterior aspect
of third ventricle.
 Hajdu-Cheney syndrome: Rare disorder of bone
metabolism. The diagnosis is made by finding
acroosteolysis with any three of the following:
Wormian bones, open skull sutures, platybasia,
micrognathia, mid-facial flattening, premature
loss of teeth, coarse hair, and short stature.

84.  Congenital hydrocephalus
 hydranencephaly:
 subdural fluid collection
 neurofibromatosis type 1
 Achondroplasia
 Thanatophoric dysplasia
 Metabolic storage diseases,
e.g. Mucopolysaccharidoses.
 Alexander disease
 Gorlin-Goltz syndrome
 Canavan disease

85. 1. Normal variant.
2. Prolonged phenytoin treatment.
3. Microcephaly.
4. Shunted hydrocephalus.
5. Acromegaly.
6. Extramedullary haemopoiesis.

86.  Congenital
 Os odontoideum
 Down syndrome (20%)
 Morquio syndrome
 spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia
 Osteogenesis imperfecta
 Marfan disease
 neurofibromatosis type 1 (NF1)
 Arthritis.

87.  Normal Variant in Child (Mimic)
 Osteonecrosis
 Legg-Calve-Perthes (LCP) disease.
 Juvenile Idiopathic Arthritis
 Rickets
 Hypothyroidism
 Spondyloepiphyseal Dysplasia
 Acromegaly
 Trisomy 18
 Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)

88. RICKETS

89.  Achondroplasia
 Mucopolysaccharidoses
 Thanatophoric Dwarfism
 Cleidocranial Dysplasia
 Chondroectodermal Dysplasia
 Camptomelic Dysplasia
 Achondrogenesis

90. Shortening of the long bones, squared iliac
bones with flat acetabula, and lack of the
normal progressive widening of the
interpediculate distances in the lumbar spine.

91.  Camptodactyly
 Diabetic cheiroarthropathy

92.  Camptodactyly, classically defined as flexion
deformities of the PIP joints , is similar to
inflammatory arthritis in that it preferentially
affects the PIP and MCP joints rather than the
DIP joints. The fifth finger is most commonly
affected in camptodactyly, whereas MPS tends to
affect all fingers in addition to other joints.

93.  Diabetic cheiroarthropathy, previously described as
stiff-hand syndrome or pseudoscleroderma , is a
condition usually associated with type 1 diabetes.
 Diabetic cheiroarthropathy commonly affects the
PIP joints of the fourth and fifth fingers, although
the other fingers and small joints of the hands often
become affected over time .
 Skin tightening and thickening accompany the
contractures and resemble the skin changes of
scleroderma.

94. Periarticular osteopenia, joint space
narrowing of the IP joints and intercarpal
joints, erosive changes of the
second and third PIP joints bilaterally.

95.  Knowledge of radiological and neuroradiological
appearances of MPS is essential for radiologists.
Skeletal X-ray and MRI may show specific
features in MPS patients, although it is not
possible to accurately differentiate between MPS
types based on skeletal and neurological
characteristics.
 The evaluation of the imaging findings is useful
for suggesting and supporting MPS as a possible
diagnosis, usually obtained by laboratory
analysis, for monitoring the chronic and
progressive course of the disease, for surgical
and medical planning and for assessing the
impact of therapy.