01 - Intro to Abnormal Psychology
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This document discusses different perspectives on what constitutes abnormal behavior and how it has been defined and treated throughout history. It explores statistical, social, and functional definitions of abnormality. Historically, abnormality was viewed through supernatural lenses and treated with exorcisms or torture. Later, Hippocrates and Galen proposed biological causes, like humoral imbalances. In the 19th century, psychiatry emerged treating mental illness as physical conditions, focusing on hospitalization. Treatments have included shock therapies, brain surgery, and modern psychotropic drugs.
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Early theories attributed mental illness to demonic possession or imbalances of bodily humors. Hippocrates and Galen promoted natural/physical causes like brain injuries. During the Middle Ages, demonic theories returned before asylums were established in the 1500s-1700s under poor conditions. The late 1700s saw biological links to diseases like syphilis. Freud established the unconscious and free association, laying the groundwork for modern psychology. The DSM standardized diagnoses based on objective symptoms and subjective descriptions across five axes.
1 Abnormal Psychology (Intro)
This document outlines the key topics and concepts to be covered regarding abnormal psychology. It will define psychological disorders, identify criteria for abnormal behavior, describe cultural and historical perspectives on abnormality, and summarize major contemporary models including biological, psychological, and sociocultural approaches. Research methods for studying abnormal psychology will be discussed, applying scientific principles like forming hypotheses and testing them. Case examples will be used to demonstrate applying criteria for determining abnormality.
Phsychological Disorders
This document summarizes the history of psychological disorders and their treatment. It discusses early beliefs that abnormal behavior was caused by demons or humoral imbalances. It then describes the introduction of more humane care in asylums in the 16th century and early psychological explanations proposed by Mesmer involving magnetic fluids. The development of diagnostic systems like the DSM is outlined as well as the role of psychopharmacology and specific disorders like depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, and ADHD. Causes proposed for different disorders include physiological, cognitive, and psychoanalytic explanations.
criminal psychology
This document discusses various topics related to psychology and abnormal psychology. It defines key terms like psychology, criminal psychology, human behavior, and psychologists. It also outlines different schools of psychology like structuralism and functionalism. The document discusses factors that can contribute to abnormal behavior like biological, environmental, and social factors. It also summarizes different approaches to understanding abnormality like the medical, statistical, legal, and behavioral approaches. Major figures in the history of abnormal psychology are highlighted. The document also discusses concepts like stress, coping mechanisms, defense mechanisms, fear, and personality disorders.
Chapter 1 intro of abpsy
This document provides an overview of the key concepts in the study of psychopathology and abnormal psychology. It discusses challenges in defining and classifying psychological disorders, as well as factors like impairment, distress, and cultural norms. The document also reviews the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) system for categorizing disorders. It then briefly outlines the history of ideas about the causes and treatment of mental illness from ancient to modern times.
Lesson 1 normality
This document provides an introduction to studying mental health. It discusses that nearly half of Australians will experience a mental disorder in their lifetime. It emphasizes studying the topic scientifically and not diagnosing oneself or others. It defines key concepts like normality, mental health, mental illness and psychological dysfunction. Normality is explained using six approaches: socio-cultural, functional, statistical, medical, situational and historical. Mental health involves well-being and coping skills, while mental illness causes distress and dysfunction. The document provides learning activities to further explain these concepts.
Psyche soma interactions
The document discusses the mind-body connection and how mental and psychological factors can influence physical health and cause somatic symptom disorders. It provides an overview of conversion disorder, formerly known as hysteria, where psychological stress is converted into physical neurological symptoms that cannot be explained medically. The document presents a case study of a woman with epilepsy, urinary issues, and suicidal thoughts whose symptoms may be linked to past trauma and discrimination. It covers theories for conversion disorder including dissociation and defenses against unconscious desires. Diagnosis involves ruling out medical conditions, and treatment uses a multidisciplinary approach including exploring psychosocial stressors.
Obsessive compulsive disorder
Obsessive compulsive disorder is a mental illness characterized by unwanted and distressing thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions). The document provides an overview of OCD including definitions, causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment. Treatment involves a combination of psychiatric medications like SSRIs and psychotherapy such as cognitive behavioral therapy which uses exposure therapy to help patients resist compulsions.
SYMPTOMATOLOGY IN PSYCHIATRY ILLNESS.pptx
This document provides an overview of symptomatology in psychiatry, describing various disorders of perception, thinking, speech, emotions, motor behavior, memory, attention, orientation, consciousness, judgment, and insight. It details specific disorders such as hallucinations, delusions, formal thought disorders, affective disorders, catatonic symptoms, amnesia, and disorders of attention and orientation. The document categorizes and defines psychiatric symptoms to aid in clinical evaluation and diagnosis of mental illnesses.
Abnormal Behavior in Historical Context.pdf
1. The study of psychopathology examines the nature, symptoms, development and treatment of psychological disorders. It has traditionally followed either a biomedical model which views disorders as biological issues, or a biopsychosocial model which sees biological, psychological and social factors as all contributing.
2. Early asylums provided little actual treatment and were more like prisons. Moral therapy, developed in the 1800s, treated patients humanely and encouraged social interaction but declined due to overcrowding.
3. Psychoanalytic theory proposed by Freud views behavior as determined by unconscious forces and psychopathology resulting from unconscious conflicts. It emphasizes defense mechanisms, psychosexual development and therapeutic techniques like free association and dream analysis
Abnormalpsychology 111004002706-phpapp02
This document discusses abnormal psychology and various perspectives on abnormal behavior. It covers ancient and historical views, the biological, psychological, sociocultural, and biopsychosocial perspectives. It then discusses various types of psychological disorders like mood disorders, anxiety disorders, psychotic disorders, personality disorders, and neurocognitive disorders. The document also discusses assessment methods, therapies, and levels of care for abnormal psychology.
Abnormal psychology
This chapter discusses the history and conceptualization of abnormal behavior and mental disorders. It describes how ancient societies attributed abnormal behavior to supernatural forces while Greek physicians began to propose natural causes. The development of the medical model in the 19th century viewed abnormal behavior as caused by diseases of the brain. Modern perspectives include the biological, psychological, sociocultural, and biopsychosocial models. Major categories of disorders discussed include neurocognitive disorders, mood disorders, anxiety disorders, personality disorders, and psychotic disorders. Assessment methods and various treatment approaches are also outlined.
Ch. 14 Classroom Presentation
This document provides an overview of abnormal psychology and psychological disorders. It discusses early theories that abnormal behavior was caused by evil spirits or demons and treatments like trephining and exorcism. It then outlines modern perspectives on the causes of disorders like psychoanalytic, behavioral, cognitive, and biological models. The document explains the DSM classification system and major categories of disorders like anxiety, mood, dissociative, somatoform, and personality disorders. Specific disorders like depression, bipolar disorder, schizophrenia, and eating disorders are defined. The Rosenhan study questioning psychiatric diagnosis is also summarized.
Ocd seminar
The document provides information on obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), including its history, epidemiology, clinical features, diagnostic criteria, etiology, and treatment. Some key points include:
- OCD has been recognized since ancient times with beliefs that it was caused by demonic possession or religious issues.
- It has a prevalence of around 2% worldwide and was historically considered treatment-resistant.
- The discovery that the antidepressant clomipramine could effectively treat OCD was a major breakthrough.
- OCD is characterized by obsessions (unwanted thoughts, images or urges) and/or compulsions (repetitive behaviors or rituals).
- The cause is believed to involve abnormalities in serotonin
Ch15 - Abnormal Behavior
The document provides an overview of psychological disorders including their historical perspectives, definitions, causes, diagnoses, and prevalence. It discusses how disorders were traditionally viewed and treated, defines what constitutes a psychological disorder today, and describes several major categories of disorders like anxiety disorders, mood disorders, schizophrenia, and personality disorders. Key classification systems like the DSM-IV-TR are also summarized that are used to diagnose and categorize different psychological conditions.
Intro psychdis
The document discusses the history and current perspectives of psychological disorders. It describes early theories that afflicted individuals were possessed by evil spirits. While early mental hospitals were like prisons, Philippe Pinel took the chains off patients and declared they were sick. Historical perspectives included somatogenic theory that disorders had bodily causes, and current perspectives view disorders as biological, psychological, and socially influenced. Psychological disorders are now classified and diagnosed according to the DSM-IV manual.
Anxiety disorder comprise a group of conditions that share a key feature of ...
Anxiety disorder comprise a group of conditions that share a key feature of excessive anxiety with ensuing behavioral, emotional, cognitive and physiologic responses
Ch 14 psychological disorders
1. The document discusses several psychological disorders including anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, mood disorders, and personality disorders.
2. Key symptoms and characteristics of these disorders are provided such as feelings of excessive apprehension (anxiety disorders), hallucinations and abnormal brain activity (schizophrenia), alternating between depression and mania (bipolar disorder), and reduced frontal lobe activity (antisocial personality disorder).
3. It is estimated that over 450 million people worldwide suffer from psychological disorders.
Similar to 01 - Intro to Abnormal Psychology (20)
Anxiety disorder comprise a group of conditions that share a key feature of ...
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Apl08 reducing prejudice
There are several strategies for counteracting prejudice discussed in the document. The contact hypothesis proposed by Allport argues that intergroup contact can reduce prejudice when there is equal status, cooperation, personal acquaintance, and support. Studies have found support for the contact hypothesis. Different models of contact include decategorization, recategorization, and mutual differentiation. Spotlighting value conflicts and cognitive strategies aim to reduce inconsistencies and recognize one's own prejudices. Establishing superordinate goals that require cooperation can also help reduce prejudice by bringing groups together around a common cause. Planned experiences of discrimination are meant to increase empathy by exposing majority group members to minority experiences.
Apl07 causes of prejudice
The document discusses several theories of prejudice:
1) Frustration-aggression hypothesis argues that frustration leads to aggression, which is often displaced onto a scapegoat if the original source is unavailable or too powerful.
2) Adorno's authoritarian personality theory proposed that authoritarian child-rearing practices can lead to clusters of prejudices from childhood to adulthood, though situational factors are also important.
3) Social identity theory views prejudice as a way to maintain positive social identity and self-esteem by favoring the in-group over out-groups.
Apl06 prejudice and discrimination
Prejudice refers to unfavorable attitudes towards social groups, while discrimination involves harmful actions directed at those groups. A 1934 study found that while a Chinese-American couple faced little prejudice during visits to establishments, 92% of those places later said they would not accept Chinese guests. Prejudice can take the form of sexism, racism, ageism, and discrimination against homosexuals. It exists on a scale from antilocution to extermination. Prejudice leads to effects like stereotype threat and self-fulfilling prophecies.
Apl05 cognitive dissonance
This document contains a survey asking respondents to rate statements about various social issues on a scale and answer yes/no questions about actions they take. It then provides information on cognitive dissonance theory, including Leon Festinger's proposal that people experience psychological discomfort from inconsistencies between attitudes, beliefs and behaviors, and seek to reduce this tension. It describes Festinger's 1959 experiment inducing cognitive dissonance in students and an effort justification study where subjects rated a discussion more positively based on their prior effort to participate.
Apl04 persuasion
The document summarizes key concepts from research on persuasion and compliance conducted at Yale University in the 1950s. It outlines four steps to persuasion: attention, comprehension, acceptance, and retention. Persuasion is influenced by characteristics of the communicator, message content, and the audience. Tactics to increase compliance include intimidation, exemplification, supplication, self-promotion, and ingratiation. Multiple request techniques like foot-in-the-door and door-in-the-face use an initial request to set up a subsequent, larger request to increase compliance. Central and peripheral routes of persuasion target message recipients' thinking styles.
Apl02 attitude formation and measurement
Attitudes can be formed through direct experiences and observations based on behavioral theories. They can be measured explicitly through questionnaires and scales, or implicitly through physiological responses, language usage, priming techniques, and implicit association tests. Common scales include Likert, Thurstone, Guttman and Osgood's semantic differential which assess attitudes through agreement levels or connotative meanings. Physiological methods analyze facial expressions and brain activity, while covert measures evaluate biases in language, reaction times to primed concepts, and implicit associations.
Apl01
The document defines attitudes as an overall evaluation of an object based on cognitive, affective, and behavioral components. Attitudes involve thoughts, feelings, and past behaviors toward the object. They serve functions such as helping understand the world, achieving goals, protecting self-image, and expressing values. The components are related but not always aligned in valence. Attitudes are influenced by beliefs, attributes, and experiences with the object.
Apl03 interpersonal communication
Interpersonal communication involves a sender encoding messages using verbal, vocal, and visual elements that the receiver decodes based on their own experiences and perspectives. Effective communication requires overcoming potential roadblocks like differing perspectives or reactions that judge or avoid discussion. Active listening is key and includes acknowledging, asking questions, paraphrasing, and mirroring feelings. Nonverbal elements of communication include paralanguage, gestures, touch, and proxemics which examines personal space through intimate, personal, social and public distances.
Not Such A Trivial Pursuit Scoreboard
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12 global citizenship
This document describes a study that examined factors related to global citizenship. It found that global awareness and normative support from friends and family predicted stronger identification as a global citizen. In turn, stronger global citizen identity predicted greater endorsement of prosocial values like empathy, diversity, social justice, sustainability, helping others globally, and responsibility. The document concludes that promoting awareness of a shared identity as global citizens can encourage prosocial attitudes and behaviors across borders.
11 prosocial behaviour
Prosocial behavior is defined as voluntary behavior intended to benefit another person. It includes helpful and altruistic acts according to social norms. Research on bystander intervention in emergencies found that the presence of other bystanders decreases the likelihood of any one person helping (the bystander effect). Latane and Darley identified five decision points people go through when deciding whether to help: noticing the emergency, defining it as such, taking responsibility, planning a response, and acting. Factors like ambiguity, mood, gender, attractiveness, and weather influence bystander intervention.
10 emotional intelligence
Emotional intelligence refers to both traits like optimism and self-esteem, as well as cognitive abilities. People with higher emotional intelligence tend to have better social skills and relationships. They are also viewed as more sensitive. Studies show teenagers and others with lower emotional intelligence are more likely to engage in risky behaviors like drug and alcohol abuse. Mayer and Salovey's model of emotional intelligence outlines four branches - perceiving, facilitating, understanding, and managing emotions - that develop with increasing maturity. Gender stereotypes suggest women express and experience emotions more than men, and research generally finds this is accurate based on self-reports and observations of emotional behavior.
09 positive relationships2
Positive relationships and quality friendships contribute greatly to children's well-being and resilience according to research. Relationships are the foundation for building resilience from childhood through adulthood. Having at least one close mutual friendship in childhood is linked to lower rates of loneliness, anxiety, and bullying. First impressions are formed quickly, within a few seconds, and take many encounters to change, so it is important to be aware of body language, tone of voice, appearance, and other non-verbal cues when managing a first impression. Active and constructive listening helps strengthen relationships while passive or destructive styles can damage them.
08 stress, coping, trauma, resilience
The document discusses different types of stress including frustration, conflict, change, and pressure and their physical and psychological symptoms. It also covers strategies for coping with stress such as cognitive restructuring, seeking social support, behavior changes, and physical coping methods. The Penn Resilience Program teaches skills for mental toughness, leading with strengths, and social skills to build resilience and prevent issues like PTSD.
07 self and self efficacy
The document discusses three models that aim to help people become the best version of themselves: self-actualization, the ideal and real self, and self-efficacy. Self-actualization refers to Maslow's concept of fulfilling one's potential. Rogers' ideal and real self model examines how individuals can match their actual self with their ideal self. Self-efficacy refers to one's beliefs about their ability to succeed and is shaped by mastery experiences, social modeling, social persuasion, and emotional states. Developing a strong sense of self-efficacy involves gaining experiences that demonstrate capabilities.
05 parfit
Derek Parfit outlines three theories of self-interest and well-being:
1) Hedonic well-being - Happiness comes from pleasure and lack of pain regardless of external facts
2) Desire fulfillment - Well-being comes from fulfilling one's desires about subjective states and objective facts
3) Objective list - Certain objective things are good/bad for people like knowledge, relationships, regardless of desires/feelings
Each theory is criticized - Hedonism ignores facts, Desire fulfillment ignores bad preferences, the Objective list is unclear on what makes the list.
04 lyubomirsky pdf
The document discusses theories of happiness and presents a new model called the construal model of happiness. The key points are:
1) Traditional theories view happiness as determined either by life circumstances (bottom-up) or temperament (top-down), but the construal model integrates both by proposing that objective circumstances only impact happiness through subjective construals and interpretations.
2) The construal model holds that people are happier when they interpret their life circumstances in an optimistic way, regardless of the actual circumstances. Subjective appraisals correlate more strongly with well-being than objective factors.
3) While temperament contributes to happiness, the document argues that intervention studies show unhappy people can increase their happiness
03 broaden and build
1) Barbara Fredrickson proposes the broaden-and-build theory, which argues that positive emotions broaden people's thought-action repertoires and build their personal resources.
2) Positive emotions broaden people's scopes of attention, cognition, and potential actions. This expanded state is proposed to improve coping and survival odds by building physical, intellectual, and social resources over time.
3) Fredrickson has conducted experiments providing evidence that positive emotions undo the effects of cardiovascular reactivity caused by negative emotions, and that increasing positive emotions leads to benefits in health and well-being over time by building various resources.
02 seligman
Martin Seligman introduced positive psychology, which focuses on human strengths and well-being rather than just weakness and illness. He developed the Authentic Happiness Theory, which defined three types of happy lives: pleasant, engaged, and meaningful. This led to his Well-Being Theory, which defines five elements of well-being: positive emotion, engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment. The goal is to increase these elements and achieve a state of flourishing. Seligman's research uses surveys to measure strengths and well-being in order to study positive psychology interventions.
01 emotional brain
1. The document summarizes research on the neural correlates of different emotions. Anger is associated with the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex, amygdala, and hypothalamus. Sadness involves the limbic system near the face, amygdala, and left prefrontal cortex, which shows less activity in depression. Happiness decreases activity in the temporal-parietal and right prefrontal cortex, while the amygdala shows some changes.
2. Research on emotion recognition suggests both left and right hemispheres play a role, though some studies link the right hemisphere more to negative emotions and the left to positive emotions. Evidence from brain damaged patients and chimeric faces studies provides mixed support for the
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Physiology of Special Chemical Sensation of Taste
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
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Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
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Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
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01 - Intro to Abnormal Psychology
- 2. General questions Abnormal compared to what? Who gets to decide what is normal and what is not?
- 3. Definition Not that simple… Can be defined in four main ways: i) Statistical Definition ii) Social Norm Deviance iii) Subjective Discomfort iv) Inability to function normally
- 4. Statistical definition Frequently occurring behaviour = normal – rare behaviour = abnormal But what about: intelligence, happiness…universality?
- 5. Social Norm Deviance Something that goes against the norms/standards of the society of the individual Implications:multicultural societieseven within one culture, the situational context can make a difference in how behaviour is labeled. E.g. man complains of spies and phone tappings… Witness protection!
- 6. Subjective Discomfort When person experiences emotional distress or emotional pain while engaging in a particular behaviour. E.g. agoraphobia BUT… does not apply to all abnormal behaviours … e.g. Psychopathic serial killers.
- 7. Inability to function normally Behaviour that does not allow a person to fit into society or function normally. Maladaptive – the person finds it hard to adapt to the demands of day to day living. Maladaptive behaviour includes behaviour that may initially help a person cope but has harmful effects.
- 8. Final definition… Any pattern of behaviour that causes people significant distress, causes them to harm themselves or others, or harms their ability to function in daily life. Clinical psychologists must consider several different criteria in determining whether or not a behaviour is abnormal (at least two must be met to form a diagnosis of abnormality)
- 9. Criteria 1. Is the behaviour unusual, such as experiencing severe panic when faced with a stranger or being severely depressed in the absence of any stressful life situations? 2. Does the behaviour go against social norms? 3. Does the behaviour cause the person significant subjective discomfort? 4. Is the behaviour maladaptive? 5. Does the behaviour cause the person to be dangerous to self or others?
- 10. Historical Models of Behaviour Supernatural Biological Psychiatry
- 11. Supernatural 3000BCE – evidence of ancient surgical techniques in human skulls. Holes cut while person was still alive and showed healing – survived! Suggested that it was done to release demons possessing the victim Technique = trepanning – still done today to relieve pressure of fluids on the brain.
- 12. Treatments Exorcism: various religious rituals to rid the victim of evil spirits. Torture to make the bodies uninhabitable Shaving the pattern of a cross in the hair of the victim’s head Securing sufferers to a wall near the front of a church for mass Hanging people over a pit full of snakes to scare the evil spirits out of the bodies Shock treatments (ice cold water dunkings)
- 13. Supernatural today The supernatural tradition in psychopathology still exists today, although it is restricted to small religious sects and in some developing countries.
- 14. Biological Hippocrates (460-377BC) – father of modern medicine. Believed that psychological disorders might be caused by brain pathology or head trauma and could be influenced by heredity. Considered brain as seat of wisdom, consciousness, intelligence and emotion. Logically concluded disorders involved with these functions are located in the brain.
- 15. Galen (129-198AD) Roman physician adopted and further develop Hippocrates’ ideas Humoral Theory of disorders
- 16. Galen’s Theory The belief that normal brain functioning was related to four bodily fluids or humors: Blood/Sanguine (came from the heart – link to cheerful/optimistic) Black bile/Melancholer (from the spleen – link to depression) Yellow bile/Choler (from the liver – link to hot temper) Phlegm (from the brain – like to apathy) Physicians believed that disease resulted from too much or too little of one of the humors; e.g. >black bile = melancholia (depression) Theory perhaps the first to associate psychological disorders with chemical imbalance.
- 17. Treatments Excesses of one or more humors were treated by regulating the environment to increase or decrease heat, dryness, moisture, or cold, depending on which humor was out of balance as each humor was related to either heat, dryness, moisture or cold. Bleeding/Bloodletting: a carefully measured amount of blood removed from the body, often with leeches. Induce vomiting
- 18. Psychiatry John Grey - 1850s: influential American psychiatrist Believed insanity was always due to physical causes, therefore mentally ill patients should be treated as physically ill. Hospital conditions grew. Took almost 140 years before community mental health movement succeeded in ‘deinstitutionalization’
- 19. Treatment 1920s-now: electric shock, brain surgery, effects of drugs (e.g. insulin shock therapy)