Pragmatics studies how utterances are used and interpreted based on context. It examines linguistic context like other words used, physical context like location, and how deixis requires shared knowledge. Speech act theory analyzes locutionary meaning, illocutionary intention, and perlocutionary effect. Cooperation theory proposes maxims for conversation like being relevant and clear. Pragmatic analysis considers how meaning relates to situation, people, context, and shared information.

1. University of the Punjab
Department of English Language & Literature
Lahore, Pakistan

2. Pragmatics
• Pragmatics studies :
– How utterances are used
– Its about interpreting what speakers mean

3. Sentences vs. Utterances
Sentence: A string of words put together by the grammatical rules
of a language
• Sentences are abstract idealizations, not physical events
Utterance: the use of a sentence, in a particular context
• Utterances are actual, physical events
Meaning of Sentence & Utterance
The meaning of a sentence can usually be derived from the
meaning of its words
Utterances can derive meaning from context which they
can‟t derive from their abstract form as sentences

4. The Interpretation of Messages
• Based on:
–knowledge of the meaning of the word
–knowledge about the context

5. Linguistic Context
• Linguistic context/ co-text :
– set of other words used in the same phrase or context
– As the word „pupil‟ is a homonym
– How do we know which meaning is intended?
• Usually by means of the linguistic context:
– If it is used in a sentence with words like „teacher‟,
„classmates‟ etc.
– we understand that pupil here means ?
– If it is used in a sentence with words like „eye‟,
„dilatation‟ we know that here it means ?

6. Physical Context
• Physical context:
– if the location will influence interpretation
• If you see a sign like this near a school:
– SLOW DOWN. PUPILS CROSSING THE STREET
– It does not mean that you have to slow down
because you could run over eye-pupils and reduce
them to a pulp

7. Language in Context
The intended meaning of whole exchanges depends on:
Context
Intentions
Shared knowledge, also
Cultural implications
If we don‟t have a context or some knowledge about a
situation, the meaning can be „invisible‟

8. Examples
A: I have a 14 year old son
B: Well that‟s right
A: I also have a dog
B: Oh, I‟m sorry
Can you understand the meaning of this exchange?
It would be hard to catch it,unless you know that A. is trying to
rent an apartment from B. B. doesn‟t accept pets
- have you seen Sam?
- the black car is over there.
This seemingly incoherent text can be easily understood if we
know that Sam owns a black car.

9. Deixis
• Deixis comes from Greek and it means ‘pointing’by
means of language
• words that cannot be interpreted alone, without being
put in a context if used without a shared knowledge
or a clear context can result very vague
• Person deixis: I, you, them
• Place deixis: Here, there, that,
• Time deixis: now
– You’ll have to bring them back by tomorrow,
because they aren’t here now and they need them

10. THEORIES
 Speech acts theory
 Relevance theory
 Cooperation theory
 Argumentation theory

11. SPEECH ACTS THEORY
Words do not have meaning by themselves

12. Speech Acts
• we can use language to do things
• When we use language to do something, we are performing
a speech act
• What can we do with the following expressions?
1. Time out!
2. Shotgun!
3. Jinx!
• The “meaning” of these expressions is what they do. (i.e.,
the use we put them to.)

13. Expression and Meaning
Assertives: (stating, suggesting, boasting,
predicting, guessing …)
Directives: (ordering, demanding, requesting,
inviting, permitting …)
Commissives: (promising, offering, refusing,
threatening …)
Expressives: (thanking, congratulating, pardoning,
blaming, praising …)
Declaratives: (naming, baptizing, declaring open,
appointing …)

14. Speech Act Examples
• Speech acts can also be performed with complete
sentences
• John read the book. Assertion
• Did John read the book? Question
• Please pass the salt. Request
• Kim‟s got a knife! Warning
• Get out of here! Order
• I will love you forever. Promise
• I‟ll give you a reason to cry. Threat

15. Analysis of Speech Act
 Speech acts can be analysed by three
levels
- Locutionary act
- Perlocutionary act
- Illocutionary act

16. Locutionary Act
• Speaker„s utterance:
– The performance of an utterance
– Semantic and sintactic aspects
Example:
„close the window’

17. Illocutionary Act
• Speaker„s intention:
– Real intended meaning
Example:
The person who is talking is cold

18. Perlocutionary Act
• Hearer„s reaction:
It‟s actual effect
Example:
The action of closing the window
A:Do you smoke?
B: Yes, thanks.
A: I wasn‟t offering, just asking.

19. Locutionary act:
there„s a bull in this field – just saying it
Illocutionary act:
the force of an utterance
there„s a bull in this field – warning
Perlocutionary act:
the effect of an utterance
there„s a bull in this field – hearer is frightened,
hearer avoids going into the field

20. COOPERATION THEORY
The way in which people try
to make conversations work.

21. The co-operative Principle
• 4 Maxims (saying):
– quantity
– quality
– relation
– manner

22. The co-operative Principle
QUANTITY:
• make your contribution as informative as
required
• but not more or less than required

23. The co-operative Principle
QUALITY:
• do not say which you believe to be
false or for which you lack evidence

24. The co-operative Principle
RELATION:
– be relevant

25. The co-operative Principle
MANNER:
be clear
brief and orderly

26. PRAGMATIC ANALISYS
Related to the situation
Related to the context
Related to the people
Related to the information

27. RELATED TO THE SITUATION
We adapt our conversation to different
situations:
depending on the place and
the time where the speech occurs

28. RELATED TO THE PEOPLE
Depending on:
who you are with and
the relation between those people
the conversation will have different meaning
Example:
Ironic utterances with friends and
with unknown people

29. RELATED TO THE CONTEXT
With in the people, there are clues in the
context that allow us to notice that irony
(to say the opposite of what it actually means)
Example:
Facial expressions

30. RELATED TO THE INFORMATION
Presuppositions about the world-knowledge of
hearers; i.e
meanings that can be deducted by listeners
because they already know about that
information

31. Summary
• Pragmatics studies :
– the uses and the effects of language
• how it is based on the relationship established
between:
• utterance, context and interlocutors
– to understanding the language in a deeply way as
words do not have meaning by themselves