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Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
2. INTRODUCTION
• The Popliteal Fossa is a diamond-shaped space
behind the knee joint.
• It is formed between the muscles in the posterior
compartments of the thigh and leg.
• This anatomical landmark is the major route by
which structures pass between the thigh and leg.
3. • Popliteal (Latin hamstring of knee) fossa is a shallow diamond-shaped
depression felt best at the back of knee joint, when the joint is semi-
flexed.
• It corresponds to the cubital fossa of the forearm
4. SURFACE LANDMARKS
• 1 Lateral and medial condyles of femur and tibia can be identified easily on the
sides and front of the knee.
• 2 Head of the fibula is a bony prominence situated just below the posterolateral
aspect of the lateral condyle of tibia.
5. • 3 Common peroneal nerve can be palpated against the posterolateral aspect of
the neck of fibula, medial to the tendon of biceps femoris, by moving the finger
from below upwards.
• 4 Fibular collateral ligament of the knee joint is felt like a rounded cord just above
the head of the fibula in a flexed knee.
6. • 5 When the knee is flexed against resistance, the hamstrings can be seen and
palpated easily right up to their insertion. Medially, the rounded tendon of the
semitendinosus lies superficial to the flat tendon of semimembranosus. In front
of these tendons, there is a groove bounded anteriorly by the tendon of adductor
magnus. Laterally, there is the tendon of biceps femoris. In front of this tendon,
there is a shallow groove bounded anteriorly by the iliotibial tract.
7. • 6 Pulsations of the popliteal artery can be felt in the middle of the popliteal fossa
by applying deep pressure.
• 7 In the lower part of popliteal fossa, two heads of the gastrocnemius form
rounded cushions that merge inferiorly into the calf.
8. LOCATION
• The popliteal fossa is a
diamond-shaped
depression lying behind
the knee joint, the lower
part of the femur, and the
upper part of the tibia.
9. BOUNDARIES
• Superolaterally: The biceps femoris
• Superomedially: The semitendinosus and the semimembranosus, supplemented
by the gracilis, the sartorius and the adductor magnus.
• Inferolaterally: Lateral head of the gastrocnemius supplemented by the plantaris.
• Inferomedially: Medial head of the gastrocnemius.
10.
11. CONTENTS
1. The popliteal artery and its branches
2. The popliteal vein and its tributaries
3. The tibial nerve and its branches
4. The common peroneal nerve and its branches
5. The posterior cutaneous nerve of the thigh
6. The genicular branch of the obturator nerve
7. The popliteal lymph nodes
8. Fat: Surrounds and supports all the above structures
12.
13.
14.
15. CLINICAL ANATOMY
• Blood pressure in the lower limb is
recorded from the popliteal artery.
In coarctation of the aorta, the
popliteal pressure is lower than the
brachial pressure.
16. • Constant pulsations of the popliteal artery against the unyielding
tendon of the adductor magnus may cause changes in the vessel wall,
leading to narrowing and occlusion of the artery. Sudden occlusion of
the artery may cause gangrene up to the knee, but this is usually
prevented by the collateral circulation through the profound femoris
artery
17. • The popliteal artery is fixed to the capsule of the knee joint by a
fibrous band present just above the femoral condyles. This may be a
source of continuous traction or stretching on the artery, causing
primary thrombosis of the artery in young subjects.
18. • When the popliteal artery is affected by atherosclerosis, the lower
part of artery usually remains patent where grafts can be tried.
• The popliteal artery is more prone to aneurysm than many other
arteries of the body
19. Questions ask
• 1. Describe popliteal fossa under following headings:
a) Boundaries
b) Contents
c) Clinical anatomy