pipelining is the concept of decomposing the sequential process into number of small stages in which each stage execute individual parts of instruction life cycle inside the processor.
This document provides an overview of implementing a simplified MIPS processor with a memory-reference instructions, arithmetic-logical instructions, and control flow instructions. It discusses:
1. Using a program counter to fetch instructions from memory and reading register operands.
2. Executing most instructions via fetching, operand fetching, execution, and storing in a single cycle.
3. Building a datapath with functional units for instruction fetching, ALU operations, memory references, and branches/jumps.
4. Implementing control using a finite state machine that sets multiplexers and control lines based on the instruction.
A microprogrammed control unit stores control signals for executing instructions in a control memory rather than using dedicated logic. It has four main components: 1) a control memory that stores microinstructions specifying microoperations, 2) a control address register that selects microinstructions, 3) a sequencer that generates the next address, and 4) a pipeline register that holds the selected microinstruction. Microprograms are sequences of microinstructions that are executed to carry out machine-level instructions. Microinstructions can implement conditional branching to alter the control flow.
(Ref : Computer System Architecture by Morris Mano 3rd edition) : Microprogrammed Control unit, micro instructions, micro operations, symbolic and binary microprogram.
This document discusses instruction set architectures (ISAs). It covers four main types of ISAs: accumulator, stack, memory-memory, and register-based. It also discusses different addressing modes like immediate, direct, indirect, register-indirect, and relative addressing. The key details provided are:
1) Accumulator ISAs use a dedicated register (accumulator) to hold operands and results, while stack ISAs use an implicit last-in, first-out stack. Memory-memory ISAs can have 2-3 operands specified directly in memory.
2) Register-based ISAs can be either register-memory (like 80x86) or load-store (like MIPS), which fully separate
pipelining is the concept of decomposing the sequential process into number of small stages in which each stage execute individual parts of instruction life cycle inside the processor.
This document provides an overview of implementing a simplified MIPS processor with a memory-reference instructions, arithmetic-logical instructions, and control flow instructions. It discusses:
1. Using a program counter to fetch instructions from memory and reading register operands.
2. Executing most instructions via fetching, operand fetching, execution, and storing in a single cycle.
3. Building a datapath with functional units for instruction fetching, ALU operations, memory references, and branches/jumps.
4. Implementing control using a finite state machine that sets multiplexers and control lines based on the instruction.
A microprogrammed control unit stores control signals for executing instructions in a control memory rather than using dedicated logic. It has four main components: 1) a control memory that stores microinstructions specifying microoperations, 2) a control address register that selects microinstructions, 3) a sequencer that generates the next address, and 4) a pipeline register that holds the selected microinstruction. Microprograms are sequences of microinstructions that are executed to carry out machine-level instructions. Microinstructions can implement conditional branching to alter the control flow.
(Ref : Computer System Architecture by Morris Mano 3rd edition) : Microprogrammed Control unit, micro instructions, micro operations, symbolic and binary microprogram.
This document discusses instruction set architectures (ISAs). It covers four main types of ISAs: accumulator, stack, memory-memory, and register-based. It also discusses different addressing modes like immediate, direct, indirect, register-indirect, and relative addressing. The key details provided are:
1) Accumulator ISAs use a dedicated register (accumulator) to hold operands and results, while stack ISAs use an implicit last-in, first-out stack. Memory-memory ISAs can have 2-3 operands specified directly in memory.
2) Register-based ISAs can be either register-memory (like 80x86) or load-store (like MIPS), which fully separate
Branch prediction is necessary to reduce penalties from branches in modern deep pipelines. It predicts the direction (taken or not taken) and target of branches. Common techniques include bimodal prediction using saturating counters and two-level prediction using branch history tables and pattern history tables. Real processors use hybrid predictors combining different techniques. Mispredictions require flushing the pipeline and incur a performance penalty.
The document discusses pipeline hazards including structural, data, and control hazards. It provides details on how each hazard can occur in a 5-stage pipeline and techniques to resolve them, including forwarding, stalling, and compiler scheduling. Data hazards are classified as RAW, WAW, and WAR. Control hazards from branches are reduced by computing the branch target and outcome earlier in the ID phase to minimize stalls.
The document discusses timing and control in basic computers. It describes two types of control organizations: hardwired control and microprogram control. Hardwired control implements control logic with gates and flip-flops, allowing for fast operation. Microprogram control stores control information in a control memory that programs required microoperations. The document also provides details on the components and functioning of a hardwired control unit, including an instruction register, control logic gates, decoders, and sequence counter used to control the timing of registers based on clock pulses.
The document discusses the instruction cycle in a computer system. The instruction cycle retrieves program instructions from memory, decodes what actions they specify, and carries out those actions. It has four main steps: 1) fetching the next instruction from memory and storing it in the instruction register, 2) decoding the encoded instruction, 3) reading the effective address for direct or indirect memory instructions, and 4) executing the instruction by passing control signals to relevant components like the ALU to perform the specified actions. The instruction cycle is the basic operational process in which a computer executes instructions.
Instruction set and instruction execution cycleMkaur01
Short presentation for Computer Architecture and Organisation subject's topic- 'Instruction Set and Instruction Execution Cycle' for students of B.Tech/BCA/MCA/Msc. Computer Science
This document discusses instruction-level parallelism (ILP), which refers to executing multiple instructions simultaneously in a program. It describes different types of parallel instructions that do not depend on each other, such as at the bit, instruction, loop, and thread levels. The document provides an example to illustrate ILP and explains that compilers and processors aim to maximize ILP. It outlines several ILP techniques used in microarchitecture, including instruction pipelining, superscalar, out-of-order execution, register renaming, speculative execution, and branch prediction. Pipelining and superscalar processing are explained in more detail.
RISC - Reduced Instruction Set ComputingTushar Swami
This document discusses RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) architecture. It includes a member list, outline of topics to be covered, and acknowledgements. The main topics covered are what RISC is, the background and history of RISC, characteristics of RISC like simplified instructions and pipelining, differences between RISC and CISC, performance equations, and applications of RISC like in mobile systems, high-end computing, and ARM and MIPS architectures. It concludes that over time, the differences between RISC and CISC have blurred as they have adopted each other's strategies.
Pipelining is an speed up technique where multiple instructions are overlapped in execution on a processor. It is an important topic in Computer Architecture.
This slide try to relate the problem with real life scenario for easily understanding the concept and show the major inner mechanism.
This document discusses computer architecture concepts such as machine language, assembly language, and instruction set architecture. It then describes different addressing architectures including memory-to-memory, register-to-register, and register-memory. Various addressing modes are also defined, such as implied, immediate, indirect, relative, and indexed addressing modes. Finally, the document briefly discusses stack instructions and the use of a stack pointer register.
The document describes the design of an accumulator unit. It shows the control circuit for the accumulator (AC) register, which has three inputs: from the AC register itself, from the data register (DR), and from the input register (INPR). The output of the arithmetic logic unit is connected back to the AC register as an input. The AC register has three control inputs: load (LD), increment (INR), and clear (CLR). It also lists 9 register transfer statements that describe the operations that can be performed on the AC register, such as ANDing, adding, loading, complementing, shifting, clearing, and incrementing its contents.
The document discusses instruction execution in a computer processor. It describes how a processor executes instructions by fetching them from memory using the program counter. The instruction is placed in the instruction register and decoded by the control unit. The control unit then selects components like the ALU to carry out operations. Common components involved in instruction execution are the program counter, memory address register, instruction register, memory buffer register, control unit, arithmetic logic unit, and accumulator. The execution cycle involves fetching the instruction from memory address, decoding it, and then executing the instruction.
This document discusses superscalar and super pipeline approaches to improving processor performance. Superscalar processors execute multiple independent instructions in parallel using multiple pipelines. Super pipelines break pipeline stages into smaller stages to reduce clock period and increase instruction throughput. While superscalar utilizes multiple parallel pipelines, super pipelines perform multiple stages per clock cycle in each pipeline. Super pipelines benefit from higher parallelism but also increase potential stalls from dependencies. Both approaches aim to maximize parallel instruction execution but face limitations from true data and other dependencies.
The document discusses the concept of virtual memory. Virtual memory allows a program to access more memory than what is physically available in RAM by storing unused portions of the program on disk. When a program requests data that is not currently in RAM, it triggers a page fault that causes the needed page to be swapped from disk into RAM. This allows the illusion of more memory than physically available through swapping pages between RAM and disk as needed by the program during execution.
This document discusses stack organization and operations. A stack is a last-in, first-out data structure where items added last are retrieved first. It uses a stack pointer to track the top of the stack. Common operations are push, which adds an item to the top of the stack, and pop, which removes an item from the top. Stacks can be implemented with registers, using a stack pointer and data register. Reverse Polish notation places operators after operands, making it suitable for stack-based expression evaluation.
This document summarizes and compares paging and segmentation, two common memory management techniques. Paging divides physical memory into fixed-size frames and logical memory into same-sized pages. It maps pages to frames using a page table. Segmentation divides logical memory into variable-sized segments and uses a segment table to map segment numbers to physical addresses. Paging avoids external fragmentation but can cause internal fragmentation, while segmentation avoids internal fragmentation but can cause external fragmentation. Both approaches separate logical and physical address spaces but represent different models of how a process views memory.
Memory management is the act of managing computer memory. The essential requirement of memory management is to provide ways to dynamically allocate portions of memory to programs at their request, and free it for reuse when no longer needed. This is critical to any advanced computer system where more than a single process might be underway at any time
This document discusses computer instruction and addressing modes. It covers basic instruction types like data transfers, arithmetic/logical operations, program control, and I/O transfers. It also describes common addressing modes like register, immediate, indirect, indexed, relative, auto-increment and auto-decrement that allow flexible access to operands in memory and registers. Instruction execution involves fetching and executing instructions sequentially based on the program counter until a branch instruction redirects execution.
The document describes the basic registers in a computer including the accumulator, program counter, instruction register, data register, address register, and temporary register. It explains that these registers are used to temporarily store and manipulate data and instructions during program execution. A common bus is used to transfer information between the registers and memory unit.
This document discusses instruction-level parallelism (ILP) limitations. It covers ILP background using a MIPS example, hardware models that were studied including register renaming and branch/jump prediction assumptions. A study of ILP limitations found diminishing returns with larger window sizes and realizable processors are limited by complexity and power constraints. Simultaneous multithreading was explored as a technique to improve ILP but has its own design challenges. Today, x86 and ARM processors employ various ILP optimizations within pipeline constraints.
Branch prediction is necessary to reduce penalties from branches in modern deep pipelines. It predicts the direction (taken or not taken) and target of branches. Common techniques include bimodal prediction using saturating counters and two-level prediction using branch history tables and pattern history tables. Real processors use hybrid predictors combining different techniques. Mispredictions require flushing the pipeline and incur a performance penalty.
The document discusses pipeline hazards including structural, data, and control hazards. It provides details on how each hazard can occur in a 5-stage pipeline and techniques to resolve them, including forwarding, stalling, and compiler scheduling. Data hazards are classified as RAW, WAW, and WAR. Control hazards from branches are reduced by computing the branch target and outcome earlier in the ID phase to minimize stalls.
The document discusses timing and control in basic computers. It describes two types of control organizations: hardwired control and microprogram control. Hardwired control implements control logic with gates and flip-flops, allowing for fast operation. Microprogram control stores control information in a control memory that programs required microoperations. The document also provides details on the components and functioning of a hardwired control unit, including an instruction register, control logic gates, decoders, and sequence counter used to control the timing of registers based on clock pulses.
The document discusses the instruction cycle in a computer system. The instruction cycle retrieves program instructions from memory, decodes what actions they specify, and carries out those actions. It has four main steps: 1) fetching the next instruction from memory and storing it in the instruction register, 2) decoding the encoded instruction, 3) reading the effective address for direct or indirect memory instructions, and 4) executing the instruction by passing control signals to relevant components like the ALU to perform the specified actions. The instruction cycle is the basic operational process in which a computer executes instructions.
Instruction set and instruction execution cycleMkaur01
Short presentation for Computer Architecture and Organisation subject's topic- 'Instruction Set and Instruction Execution Cycle' for students of B.Tech/BCA/MCA/Msc. Computer Science
This document discusses instruction-level parallelism (ILP), which refers to executing multiple instructions simultaneously in a program. It describes different types of parallel instructions that do not depend on each other, such as at the bit, instruction, loop, and thread levels. The document provides an example to illustrate ILP and explains that compilers and processors aim to maximize ILP. It outlines several ILP techniques used in microarchitecture, including instruction pipelining, superscalar, out-of-order execution, register renaming, speculative execution, and branch prediction. Pipelining and superscalar processing are explained in more detail.
RISC - Reduced Instruction Set ComputingTushar Swami
This document discusses RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computer) architecture. It includes a member list, outline of topics to be covered, and acknowledgements. The main topics covered are what RISC is, the background and history of RISC, characteristics of RISC like simplified instructions and pipelining, differences between RISC and CISC, performance equations, and applications of RISC like in mobile systems, high-end computing, and ARM and MIPS architectures. It concludes that over time, the differences between RISC and CISC have blurred as they have adopted each other's strategies.
Pipelining is an speed up technique where multiple instructions are overlapped in execution on a processor. It is an important topic in Computer Architecture.
This slide try to relate the problem with real life scenario for easily understanding the concept and show the major inner mechanism.
This document discusses computer architecture concepts such as machine language, assembly language, and instruction set architecture. It then describes different addressing architectures including memory-to-memory, register-to-register, and register-memory. Various addressing modes are also defined, such as implied, immediate, indirect, relative, and indexed addressing modes. Finally, the document briefly discusses stack instructions and the use of a stack pointer register.
The document describes the design of an accumulator unit. It shows the control circuit for the accumulator (AC) register, which has three inputs: from the AC register itself, from the data register (DR), and from the input register (INPR). The output of the arithmetic logic unit is connected back to the AC register as an input. The AC register has three control inputs: load (LD), increment (INR), and clear (CLR). It also lists 9 register transfer statements that describe the operations that can be performed on the AC register, such as ANDing, adding, loading, complementing, shifting, clearing, and incrementing its contents.
The document discusses instruction execution in a computer processor. It describes how a processor executes instructions by fetching them from memory using the program counter. The instruction is placed in the instruction register and decoded by the control unit. The control unit then selects components like the ALU to carry out operations. Common components involved in instruction execution are the program counter, memory address register, instruction register, memory buffer register, control unit, arithmetic logic unit, and accumulator. The execution cycle involves fetching the instruction from memory address, decoding it, and then executing the instruction.
This document discusses superscalar and super pipeline approaches to improving processor performance. Superscalar processors execute multiple independent instructions in parallel using multiple pipelines. Super pipelines break pipeline stages into smaller stages to reduce clock period and increase instruction throughput. While superscalar utilizes multiple parallel pipelines, super pipelines perform multiple stages per clock cycle in each pipeline. Super pipelines benefit from higher parallelism but also increase potential stalls from dependencies. Both approaches aim to maximize parallel instruction execution but face limitations from true data and other dependencies.
The document discusses the concept of virtual memory. Virtual memory allows a program to access more memory than what is physically available in RAM by storing unused portions of the program on disk. When a program requests data that is not currently in RAM, it triggers a page fault that causes the needed page to be swapped from disk into RAM. This allows the illusion of more memory than physically available through swapping pages between RAM and disk as needed by the program during execution.
This document discusses stack organization and operations. A stack is a last-in, first-out data structure where items added last are retrieved first. It uses a stack pointer to track the top of the stack. Common operations are push, which adds an item to the top of the stack, and pop, which removes an item from the top. Stacks can be implemented with registers, using a stack pointer and data register. Reverse Polish notation places operators after operands, making it suitable for stack-based expression evaluation.
This document summarizes and compares paging and segmentation, two common memory management techniques. Paging divides physical memory into fixed-size frames and logical memory into same-sized pages. It maps pages to frames using a page table. Segmentation divides logical memory into variable-sized segments and uses a segment table to map segment numbers to physical addresses. Paging avoids external fragmentation but can cause internal fragmentation, while segmentation avoids internal fragmentation but can cause external fragmentation. Both approaches separate logical and physical address spaces but represent different models of how a process views memory.
Memory management is the act of managing computer memory. The essential requirement of memory management is to provide ways to dynamically allocate portions of memory to programs at their request, and free it for reuse when no longer needed. This is critical to any advanced computer system where more than a single process might be underway at any time
This document discusses computer instruction and addressing modes. It covers basic instruction types like data transfers, arithmetic/logical operations, program control, and I/O transfers. It also describes common addressing modes like register, immediate, indirect, indexed, relative, auto-increment and auto-decrement that allow flexible access to operands in memory and registers. Instruction execution involves fetching and executing instructions sequentially based on the program counter until a branch instruction redirects execution.
The document describes the basic registers in a computer including the accumulator, program counter, instruction register, data register, address register, and temporary register. It explains that these registers are used to temporarily store and manipulate data and instructions during program execution. A common bus is used to transfer information between the registers and memory unit.
This document discusses instruction-level parallelism (ILP) limitations. It covers ILP background using a MIPS example, hardware models that were studied including register renaming and branch/jump prediction assumptions. A study of ILP limitations found diminishing returns with larger window sizes and realizable processors are limited by complexity and power constraints. Simultaneous multithreading was explored as a technique to improve ILP but has its own design challenges. Today, x86 and ARM processors employ various ILP optimizations within pipeline constraints.
This document discusses instruction pipelining as a technique to improve computer performance. It explains that pipelining allows multiple instructions to be processed simultaneously by splitting instruction execution into stages like fetch, decode, execute, and write. While pipelining does not reduce the time to complete individual instructions, it improves throughput by allowing new instructions to begin processing before previous instructions have finished. The document outlines some challenges to achieving peak performance from pipelining, such as pipeline stalls from hazards like data dependencies between instructions. It provides examples of how data hazards can occur if the results of one instruction are needed by a subsequent instruction before they are available.
This document discusses instruction level parallelism (ILP) and how it can be used to improve performance by overlapping the execution of instructions through pipelining. ILP refers to the potential overlap among instructions within a basic block. Factors like dynamic branch prediction and compiler dependence analysis can impact the ideal pipeline CPI and number of data hazard stalls. Loop level parallelism refers to the parallelism available across iterations of a loop. Data dependencies between instructions, if not properly handled, can limit parallelism and require instructions to execute in order. The three types of data dependencies are data, name, and control dependencies.
The document discusses instruction pipelining in CPUs. It explains that instruction pipelining achieves greater CPU performance by overlapping the execution of multiple instructions. It describes the different stages in a basic two-stage pipeline as fetch and execute. It then discusses how further dividing the pipeline into more stages, such as six stages for fetch, decode, calculate, fetch operands, execute, and writeback, can provide even higher performance. However, it notes conditional branches can reduce efficiency since the next instruction is unknown until the branch is resolved. Various techniques to handle branches like branch prediction, prefetching the target, and delayed branches are described to improve pipeline performance.
This slide contain the description about the various technique related to parallel Processing(vector Processing and array processor), Arithmetic pipeline, Instruction Pipeline, SIMD processor, Attached array processor
Dokumen tersebut membahas tentang konsep pipelining pada prosesor komputer. Pipelining digunakan untuk melakukan beberapa tahap pengolahan instruksi secara bersamaan dengan mengalirkannya ke berbagai stage secara berkelanjutan untuk meningkatkan throughput meskipun waktu penyelesaian setiap instruksi tetap sama. Hal ini menimbulkan tantangan seperti data hazard dan instruction hazard yang dapat ditangani dengan teknik seperti forwarding, branch prediction, dan
This chapter discusses pipelining in computer processors. Pipelining improves processor throughput by allowing multiple instructions to be processed simultaneously across different stages. It involves dividing instruction execution into discrete stages, such as fetch, decode, execute, and writeback. Pipelining can improve performance but also introduces hazards such as data dependencies that require stalling the pipeline. Techniques like forwarding, reordering, and branch prediction help mitigate stalls and improve pipeline utilization.
A Look Back | A Look Ahead Seattle Foundation ServicesSeattle Foundation
The document outlines various philanthropic services provided by Seattle Foundation, including lifetime philanthropy through donor advised funds and family foundations, legacy philanthropy through bequests and planned giving, organizational philanthropy through corporate foundations and agency endowments, and specialized services like global giving and impact investing. It provides details on each type of service and how donors can engage to accomplish their personal, financial, and philanthropic goals through principled oversight of charitable assets.
The document discusses the history and development of artificial intelligence over the past several decades. It outlines milestones such as the creation of expert systems in the 1980s, generalized AI in the 1990s, and modern advances in machine learning. Overall progress in AI has been steady as researchers continue developing new techniques to solve increasingly complex problems.
The document discusses linear and nonlinear instruction pipelines. It describes different stages in a linear pipeline like fetch, decode, operand fetch, execute, and write results. It also discusses different types of dependencies like data and instruction dependencies that can occur in pipelines and different solutions to handle them like stalling, forwarding, branch prediction etc. The document further explains the design of nonlinear pipelines using concepts like latency sequence, collision vector, forbidden latencies and provides an example pipeline for multiply and add operations.
1. The document discusses the future of data science and big data technologies. It describes the roles of data scientists and their typical skills, salaries, and job outlook.
2. It discusses technologies like Hadoop, Spark, and distributed computing that are used to handle big data. While Hadoop is good for batch processing, Spark can perform both batch and real-time processing 100x faster.
3. Going forward, data science will shift from descriptive to predictive analytics using machine learning to improve customer experience and business outcomes across industries like internet search and digital advertising.
Computers when invented by Charles Babbage only viewed it as a computing machines. However it is only recently that computer has evolved more rapidly. Through its complex systems and processing capabilities computers can be used to manipulate databases.
For more such innovative content on management studies, join WeSchool PGDM-DLP Program: http://bit.ly/ZEcPAc
This document discusses various models of parallel computer architectures. It begins with an overview of Flynn's taxonomy, which classifies computer systems based on the number of instruction and data streams. The main categories are SISD, SIMD, MIMD, and MISD. It then covers parallel computer models in more detail, including shared-memory multiprocessors, distributed-memory multicomputers, classifications based on interconnection networks and parallelism. It provides examples of different parallel architectures and references papers on advanced computer architecture and parallel processing.
Vector processing involves executing the same operation on multiple data elements simultaneously using a single instruction. Early implementations like the CDC Cyber 100 had limitations. The Cray-1 was the first successful vector processing supercomputer, using vector registers to perform calculations faster than requiring memory access. Seymour Cray led the development of vector processing machines that dominated the field for many years. While vector processing is no longer a focus, its principles are still used today in multimedia SIMD instructions.
Interstage buffer B1 feeds the Decode stage with a newly-fetched instruction.
Interstage buffer B2 feeds the Compute stage with the two operands
Interstage buffer B3 holds the result of the ALU operation
Interstage buffer B4 feeds the Write stage with a value to be written into the register file
This document discusses pipelining in microprocessors. It describes how pipelining works by dividing instruction processing into stages - fetch, decode, execute, memory, and write back. This allows subsequent instructions to begin processing before previous instructions have finished, improving processor efficiency. The document provides estimated timing for each stage and notes advantages like quicker execution for large programs, while disadvantages include added hardware and potential pipeline hazards disrupting smooth execution. It then gives examples of how four instructions would progress through each stage in a pipelined versus linear fashion.
Workshop
December 9, 2015
LBS College of Engineering
www.sarithdivakar.info | www.csegyan.org
http://sarithdivakar.info/2015/12/09/wordcount-program-in-python-using-apache-spark-for-data-stored-in-hadoop-hdfs/
Round Robin is a preemptive scheduling algorithm where each process is allocated an equal time slot or time quantum to execute before being preempted. It is designed for time-sharing to ensure all processes are given a fair share of CPU time without starvation. The process is added to the back of the ready queue when its time slice expires. It provides low response time on average but increased context switching overhead compared to non-preemptive algorithms. The time quantum value impacts both processor utilization and response time.
This chapter discusses processor structure and function. It covers the basic components of a CPU including registers, instruction cycles, and data flow. Key points include:
- A CPU must fetch, interpret, fetch operands for, process, and write data from instructions. It uses registers for temporary storage and a program counter to keep track of instructions.
- Common registers include general purpose, data, address, condition code, control/status, and program status registers. General purpose registers can vary in number, size, and whether they are general or specialized use.
- An instruction cycle involves fetching an instruction from memory, decoding it, fetching operands, executing the instruction, and writing results. Pipelining and branch prediction are
A presentation on different CPU scheduling algorithms such as SJF, RR and FIFO detailed explanation with advantages and disadvantages of each algorithm. This ppt also contains brief information about the multiprocessor scheduling and the performance evaluation of Scheduling algorithms.
This document summarizes the key components and organization of superscalar processor pipelines. It discusses how superscalar processors can execute multiple instructions per cycle by exploiting instruction-level parallelism. The document outlines the major stages in a superscalar pipeline including instruction fetch, decode, dispatch, execution, completion, and retirement. It also discusses limiting factors like structural hazards from resource conflicts, data hazards from dependencies between instructions, and control hazards from branches.
This document discusses instruction pipelining in computer processors. It begins by defining pipelining and explaining how it works like an assembly line to increase throughput. It then discusses different types of pipelines and introduces the MIPS instruction pipeline as an example. The document goes on to explain different types of pipeline hazards like structural hazards, control hazards, and data hazards. It provides examples of how to detect and resolve these hazards through techniques like forwarding, stalling, predicting, and delayed branching. Key concepts covered include pipeline registers, control signals, forwarding units, and branch prediction buffers.
The CPU must fetch, interpret, and process instructions and data. It uses registers for temporary storage and as the top level of memory hierarchy. Registers include general purpose registers for data and addressing, condition code registers for tracking results, and control/status registers for functions like instruction decoding. Modern CPUs use pipelining to overlap the fetch, decode, execute, and writeback stages of instruction processing. They employ techniques like branch prediction and instruction prefetching to optimize pipeline performance in the presence of branches.
The document discusses parallel computing platforms and techniques for hiding memory latency. It covers the following key points:
1) Implicit parallelism in microprocessors has increased through pipelining and superscalar execution, but memory latency remains a bottleneck. Caches help reduce effective latency by exploiting data locality.
2) Multithreading and prefetching are approaches to hide memory latency by keeping the processor occupied while waiting for data, but they increase bandwidth demands and hardware costs.
3) Different applications utilize different types of parallelism, like data-level parallelism for throughput or task-level parallelism for aggregate performance. Understanding performance bottlenecks is important for parallelization.
This document discusses the CPU structure and function based on William Stallings' Computer Organization and Architecture textbook. It covers the following key points in 3 or fewer sentences:
The CPU must fetch instructions, interpret instructions, fetch data, process data, and write data. The CPU contains registers for temporary storage and processing, including general purpose, data, address, and condition code registers. The document discusses CPU internal structures like control and status registers, the program status word, and register organizations for CPUs like Intel processors and PowerPC.
CPU scheduling is the basis of multiprogrammed operating systems. By switching the CPU among processes, the operating system can make the computer more productive
- To introduce CPU scheduling, which is the basis for multiprogrammed operating systems
- To describe various CPU-scheduling algorithms
- To discuss evaluation criteria for selecting a CPU-scheduling algorithm for a particular system
- To examine the scheduling algorithms of several operating systems
The document summarizes instruction level parallelism and superscalar processors. It discusses how superscalar processors can fetch and execute multiple instructions simultaneously by taking advantage of independent instructions that do not have data dependencies. True data dependencies, procedural dependencies, resource conflicts, output dependencies, and antidependencies limit the degree of instruction level parallelism. The document then describes the design of superscalar processors including instruction issue policies, register renaming, and other techniques to enable out-of-order execution. It provides examples of superscalar processor implementations like the Pentium 4 and ARM Cortex-A8.
This document provides information about the features and architecture of the Intel Pentium processor. It discusses the processor's superscalar design with dual integer pipelines, branch prediction using a branch target buffer, and separate instruction and data caches. It also describes the floating point unit's pipelined design. The document compares the Pentium to the Intel 80386, noting the Pentium's higher performance enabled by its superscalar design, on-chip caches, branch prediction, and 64-bit data bus. It briefly outlines additional performance features of the Pentium Pro such as its 14-stage pipeline, integrated L2 cache, and out-of-order execution capabilities.
The document discusses pipelining in processors. It begins by explaining that pipelining overlaps the execution of instructions to improve performance. It then describes the basic concept of dividing instruction execution into stages connected in a pipeline. It provides details on the stages in a five-stage pipeline model and how instructions can be fetched and executed in an overlapped, pipelined manner. However, it notes pipelining issues can occur if there are dependencies between instructions. It discusses different types of hazards and techniques like forwarding, stalling, and branch prediction that are used to handle hazards in pipelined processors.
Fault Tolerance in Distributed EnvironmentOrkhan Gasimov
The document discusses various techniques for achieving fault tolerance in distributed systems, including service coordination, handling high load, RPC mechanics, circuit breakers, N-modular redundancy, recovery blocks, actors and error kernels, and instance healers. It describes common issues that can occur like network failures and overloaded services, and explains solutions such as service discovery, load balancing, timeouts, and dynamically scaling services horizontally.
In non-preemptive scheduling once a process has been allocated the CPU it runs uninterrupted until it finishes execution.
On the other hand, in preemptive schedule algorithms, the running process may be interrupted by a higher priority process in between its execution.
Whenever a process gets into ready state or the currently running finishes execution, the priority of the ready state process is checked against that of the running process.
If the priority of the ready process is more it is allowed to be allocated to the CPU.
Therefore, in these schemes, the CPU is allocated to the process with the highest priority all the time.
This gives rise to frequent context switching, which can become very costly in terms of CPU time wasted in switching. In the following sections we will explore some of such scheduling algorithms
This document discusses pipelining in computer processors. It defines pipelining as accumulating instructions through a pipeline to allow storing and executing instructions in parallel. There are two main types of pipelines: arithmetic pipelines which handle floating point operations, and instruction pipelines which overlap the fetch, decode, and execute phases of instructions. Pipelining provides benefits like reduced cycle time and increased throughput, but also has disadvantages like increased complexity, costs, and instruction latency. Common issues that can interfere with pipelining are timing variations, data hazards, branching, interrupts, and data dependency.
The document summarizes key aspects of CPU structure and function including:
- The main components of a CPU including registers, control and status registers, and condition code registers.
- Common CPU register types like general purpose, address, and data registers.
- Details of instruction cycles, pipelining, and how hazards like data, resource, and branch hazards are addressed.
- Examples of specific CPU architectures including Intel 80486, Pentium, and ARM including their register organizations, instruction pipelines, and interrupt handling.
This document discusses instruction level parallelism and superscalar processors. It begins by defining superscalar processors as being able to initiate and execute common instructions independently and in parallel. It then discusses limitations to instruction level parallelism due to dependencies. Different instruction issue policies are covered, including in-order and out-of-order completion. Methods for addressing dependencies like register renaming are also summarized. Examples of superscalar processor implementations from Pentium 4 and PowerPC 601 are briefly described.
A workshop hosted by the South African Journal of Science aimed at postgraduate students and early career researchers with little or no experience in writing and publishing journal articles.
How to Fix the Import Error in the Odoo 17Celine George
An import error occurs when a program fails to import a module or library, disrupting its execution. In languages like Python, this issue arises when the specified module cannot be found or accessed, hindering the program's functionality. Resolving import errors is crucial for maintaining smooth software operation and uninterrupted development processes.
Walmart Business+ and Spark Good for Nonprofits.pdfTechSoup
"Learn about all the ways Walmart supports nonprofit organizations.
You will hear from Liz Willett, the Head of Nonprofits, and hear about what Walmart is doing to help nonprofits, including Walmart Business and Spark Good. Walmart Business+ is a new offer for nonprofits that offers discounts and also streamlines nonprofits order and expense tracking, saving time and money.
The webinar may also give some examples on how nonprofits can best leverage Walmart Business+.
The event will cover the following::
Walmart Business + (https://business.walmart.com/plus) is a new shopping experience for nonprofits, schools, and local business customers that connects an exclusive online shopping experience to stores. Benefits include free delivery and shipping, a 'Spend Analytics” feature, special discounts, deals and tax-exempt shopping.
Special TechSoup offer for a free 180 days membership, and up to $150 in discounts on eligible orders.
Spark Good (walmart.com/sparkgood) is a charitable platform that enables nonprofits to receive donations directly from customers and associates.
Answers about how you can do more with Walmart!"
This presentation includes basic of PCOS their pathology and treatment and also Ayurveda correlation of PCOS and Ayurvedic line of treatment mentioned in classics.
How to Manage Your Lost Opportunities in Odoo 17 CRMCeline George
Odoo 17 CRM allows us to track why we lose sales opportunities with "Lost Reasons." This helps analyze our sales process and identify areas for improvement. Here's how to configure lost reasons in Odoo 17 CRM
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty, In...Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
Exploiting Artificial Intelligence for Empowering Researchers and Faculty,
International FDP on Fundamentals of Research in Social Sciences
at Integral University, Lucknow, 06.06.2024
By Dr. Vinod Kumar Kanvaria
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
2. Objectives
• Basics of pipelining and how it can lead to improved performance.
• Hazards that cause performance degradation and techniques to
alleviate their effect on performance
• Role of optimizing compilers, which rearrange the sequence of
instructions to maximize the benefits of pipelined execution
• Replicating hardware units in a superscalar processor so that multiple
pipelines can operate concurrently.
3. Basic Concepts
• Pipelining overlaps the execution of successive instructions to achieve
high performance
• The speed of execution of programs is improved by
• using faster circuit technology
• arranging the hardware so that more than one operation can be performed at
the same time
• The number of operations performed per second is increased, even
though the time needed to perform any one operation is not changed
• Pipelining is a particularly effective way of organizing concurrent
activity in a computer system.
7. Pipelining Issues
• Any condition that causes the pipeline to stall is called a hazard
• Data hazard: Value of a source operand of an instruction is not
available when needed
• Other hazards arise from memory delays, branch instructions, and
resource limitations
Writing to Register file
Operation using the old
value of the register
8. Data Dependencies
• Add R2, R3, #100
• Subtract R9, R2, #30
• The Subtract instruction is stalled for three cycles to delay reading
register R2 until cycle 6 when the new value becomes available.
9. Operand Forwarding
• Pipeline stalls due to data dependencies can be alleviated through the
use of operand forwarding
10.
11. Handling Data Dependencies in Software
Add R2, R3, #100
NOP
NOP
NOP
Subtract R9, R2, #30
• Code size increases
• Execution time not reduced
The compiler can attempt to optimize the code to improve performance and reduce the code size by
reordering instructions to move useful instructions into the NOP slots
12. Memory Delays
• Load instruction may require more than one clock cycle to obtain its
operand from memory.
• Load R2, (R3)
• Subtract R9, R2, #30
13. Operand forwarding
• Operand forwarding cannot be done because the data read from
memory (the cache, in this case) are not available until they are
loaded into register RY at the beginning of cycle 5
The memory operand, which is now in register RY, can be forwarded to the ALU input in cycle 5.
14. Branch Delays
• Branch instructions can alter the sequence of execution, but they
must first be executed to determine whether and where to branch.
• Branch instructions occur frequently. In fact, they represent about 20
percent of the dynamic instruction count of most programs.
• Reducing the branch penalty requires the branch target address to be
computed earlier in the pipeline
With a two-cycle branch penalty, the relatively high frequency of branch instructions could
increase the execution time for a program by as much as 40 percent.
17. Conditional Branches
• For pipelining, the branch condition must be tested as early as
possible to limit the branch penalty
18. The Branch Delay Slot
• The location that follows a branch instruction is called the branch
delay slot.
• Rather than conditionally discard the instruction in the delay slot, we
can arrange to have the pipeline always execute this instruction,
whether or not the branch is taken
19.
20. Branch Prediction
• To reduce the branch penalty further, the processor needs to
anticipate that an instruction being fetched is a branch instruction
• Predict its outcome to determine which instruction should be fetched
• Static Branch Prediction
• Dynamic Branch Prediction
21. Static Branch Prediction
• The simplest form of branch prediction is to assume that the branch
will not be taken and to fetch the next instruction in sequential
address order
• If the prediction is correct, the fetched instruction is allowed to
complete and there is no penalty
• Misprediction incurs the full branch penalty
22. Dynamic Branch Prediction
• The processor hardware assesses the likelihood of a given branch
being taken by keeping track of branch decisions every time that a
branch instruction is executed.
• dynamic prediction algorithm can use the result of the most recent
execution of a branch instruction
• The processor assumes that the next time the instruction is executed,
the branch decision is likely to be the same as the last time.
23. A 2-state algorithm
• When the branch instruction is executed and the branch is taken, the
machine moves to state LT. Otherwise, it remains in state LNT.
• The next time the same instruction is encountered, the branch is
predicted as taken if the state machine is in state LT. Otherwise it is
predicted as not taken.
LT - Branch is likely to be taken
LNT - Branch is likely not to be taken
24. A 4-state algorithm
ST - Strongly likely to be taken
LT - Likely to be taken
LNT - Likely not to be taken
SNT - Strongly likely not to be taken
• After the branch instruction is executed,
and if the branch is actually taken, the
state is changed to ST; otherwise, it is
changed to SNT.
• The branch is predicted as taken if the
state is either ST or LT. Otherwise, the
branch is predicted as not taken.
25. Performance Evaluation
• Basic performance equation
• For a non-pipelined processor, the execution time, T, of a program
that has a dynamic instruction count of N is given by
• S is the average number of clock cycles it takes to fetch and execute
one instruction
• R is the clock rate in cycles per second
26. • Instruction throughput
• Number of instructions executed per second. For non-pipelined
execution, the throughput, Pnp, is given by
• The processor with five cycles to execute all instructions.
• If there are no cache misses, S is equal to 5.
27. • For the five-stage pipeline each instruction is executed in five cycles,
but a new instruction can ideally enter the pipeline every cycle.
• Thus, in the absence of stalls, S is equal to 1, and the ideal throughput
with pipelining is
• A five-stage pipeline can potentially increase the throughput by a
factor of five
n-stage pipeline has the potential to increase throughput n times
28. Assignment
Date of Submission: 27-Jun-2016
• How much of this potential increase in instruction
throughput can actually be realizedin practice?
• What is a good value for n?