The document summarizes key aspects of CPU structure and function including:
- The main components of a CPU including registers, control and status registers, and condition code registers.
- Common CPU register types like general purpose, address, and data registers.
- Details of instruction cycles, pipelining, and how hazards like data, resource, and branch hazards are addressed.
- Examples of specific CPU architectures including Intel 80486, Pentium, and ARM including their register organizations, instruction pipelines, and interrupt handling.
This document discusses the CPU structure and function based on William Stallings' Computer Organization and Architecture textbook. It covers the following key points in 3 or fewer sentences:
The CPU must fetch instructions, interpret instructions, fetch data, process data, and write data. The CPU contains registers for temporary storage and processing, including general purpose, data, address, and condition code registers. The document discusses CPU internal structures like control and status registers, the program status word, and register organizations for CPUs like Intel processors and PowerPC.
This document discusses different types of addressing modes and instruction formats. It describes seven common addressing modes: immediate, direct, indirect, register, register indirect, displacement (indexed), and stack. It also provides examples and diagrams to illustrate each addressing mode. The document then discusses instruction formats, including how the number and layout of bits in an instruction are determined by factors like memory size and CPU design. Examples of instruction formats are given for processors like PDP-8, PDP-10, PDP-11, VAX, Pentium, and PowerPC.
The document summarizes key aspects of the IA-64 architecture as described in William Stallings' Computer Organization and Architecture textbook. It discusses:
1. The motivation for developing a new 64-bit architecture rather than extending x86, including exploiting parallelism and addressing complexity issues with superscalar processors.
2. Key features of IA-64 including its EPIC design with explicit instruction-level parallelism, large register sets, multiple execution units, and instruction formats.
3. Details of the Itanium processor implementation of IA-64 including its pipeline structure and register renaming support for software pipelining.
This document summarizes input/output techniques discussed in Chapter 7 of William Stallings' Computer Organization and Architecture textbook. It describes three main techniques for inputting a block of data: programmed I/O, interrupt-driven I/O, and direct memory access (DMA). Programmed I/O involves the CPU directly controlling and waiting for I/O operations. Interrupt-driven I/O allows an I/O module to interrupt the CPU when an operation is complete. DMA allows an I/O module to directly transfer data between a device and memory without CPU involvement. The document also discusses I/O modules, addressing I/O devices, and industry standard interfaces like FireWire and InfiniBand
This document discusses instruction level parallelism and superscalar processors. It begins by defining superscalar processors as being able to initiate and execute common instructions independently and in parallel. It then discusses limitations to instruction level parallelism due to dependencies. Different instruction issue policies are covered, including in-order and out-of-order completion. Methods for addressing dependencies like register renaming are also summarized. Examples of superscalar processor implementations from Pentium 4 and PowerPC 601 are briefly described.
This document discusses the evolution of computer architecture from CISC to RISC designs. It covers major advances like cache memory and microprocessors that enabled RISC. Key RISC features include large register files optimized via register allocation algorithms, simple instruction sets, and emphasis on optimizing instruction pipelines. Pipelining enables parallel fetch and execute cycles, and techniques like delayed branching optimize pipeline utilization. While CISC aimed to ease compiler complexity, RISC prioritizes simple instructions that can complete in one cycle. The tradeoffs between CISC and RISC remain controversial with no definitive consensus due to the complexity of separating hardware and software factors.
This chapter discusses reduced instruction set computers (RISC). It provides background on major advances in computers that led to RISC designs, such as cache memory, microprocessors, and pipelining. The key features of RISC processors are described, including large general-purpose registers, a limited and simple instruction set, and an emphasis on optimizing the instruction pipeline. The chapter compares RISC to CISC processors and discusses the driving forces behind both approaches. It analyzes the execution characteristics of programs and implications for processor design, such as optimizing register usage and careful pipeline design.
Faster microprocessor design presentation in American International University-Bangladesh (AIUB). Presentation was taken under the subject "SELECTED TOPICS IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING (PROCESSOR AND DSP HARDWARE DESIGN WITH SYSTEM VERILOG, VHDL AND FPGAS) [MEEE]", as a final semester student of M.Sc at AIUB.
This document discusses the CPU structure and function based on William Stallings' Computer Organization and Architecture textbook. It covers the following key points in 3 or fewer sentences:
The CPU must fetch instructions, interpret instructions, fetch data, process data, and write data. The CPU contains registers for temporary storage and processing, including general purpose, data, address, and condition code registers. The document discusses CPU internal structures like control and status registers, the program status word, and register organizations for CPUs like Intel processors and PowerPC.
This document discusses different types of addressing modes and instruction formats. It describes seven common addressing modes: immediate, direct, indirect, register, register indirect, displacement (indexed), and stack. It also provides examples and diagrams to illustrate each addressing mode. The document then discusses instruction formats, including how the number and layout of bits in an instruction are determined by factors like memory size and CPU design. Examples of instruction formats are given for processors like PDP-8, PDP-10, PDP-11, VAX, Pentium, and PowerPC.
The document summarizes key aspects of the IA-64 architecture as described in William Stallings' Computer Organization and Architecture textbook. It discusses:
1. The motivation for developing a new 64-bit architecture rather than extending x86, including exploiting parallelism and addressing complexity issues with superscalar processors.
2. Key features of IA-64 including its EPIC design with explicit instruction-level parallelism, large register sets, multiple execution units, and instruction formats.
3. Details of the Itanium processor implementation of IA-64 including its pipeline structure and register renaming support for software pipelining.
This document summarizes input/output techniques discussed in Chapter 7 of William Stallings' Computer Organization and Architecture textbook. It describes three main techniques for inputting a block of data: programmed I/O, interrupt-driven I/O, and direct memory access (DMA). Programmed I/O involves the CPU directly controlling and waiting for I/O operations. Interrupt-driven I/O allows an I/O module to interrupt the CPU when an operation is complete. DMA allows an I/O module to directly transfer data between a device and memory without CPU involvement. The document also discusses I/O modules, addressing I/O devices, and industry standard interfaces like FireWire and InfiniBand
This document discusses instruction level parallelism and superscalar processors. It begins by defining superscalar processors as being able to initiate and execute common instructions independently and in parallel. It then discusses limitations to instruction level parallelism due to dependencies. Different instruction issue policies are covered, including in-order and out-of-order completion. Methods for addressing dependencies like register renaming are also summarized. Examples of superscalar processor implementations from Pentium 4 and PowerPC 601 are briefly described.
This document discusses the evolution of computer architecture from CISC to RISC designs. It covers major advances like cache memory and microprocessors that enabled RISC. Key RISC features include large register files optimized via register allocation algorithms, simple instruction sets, and emphasis on optimizing instruction pipelines. Pipelining enables parallel fetch and execute cycles, and techniques like delayed branching optimize pipeline utilization. While CISC aimed to ease compiler complexity, RISC prioritizes simple instructions that can complete in one cycle. The tradeoffs between CISC and RISC remain controversial with no definitive consensus due to the complexity of separating hardware and software factors.
This chapter discusses reduced instruction set computers (RISC). It provides background on major advances in computers that led to RISC designs, such as cache memory, microprocessors, and pipelining. The key features of RISC processors are described, including large general-purpose registers, a limited and simple instruction set, and an emphasis on optimizing the instruction pipeline. The chapter compares RISC to CISC processors and discusses the driving forces behind both approaches. It analyzes the execution characteristics of programs and implications for processor design, such as optimizing register usage and careful pipeline design.
Faster microprocessor design presentation in American International University-Bangladesh (AIUB). Presentation was taken under the subject "SELECTED TOPICS IN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING (PROCESSOR AND DSP HARDWARE DESIGN WITH SYSTEM VERILOG, VHDL AND FPGAS) [MEEE]", as a final semester student of M.Sc at AIUB.
Advanced computer architecture lesson 5 and 6Ismail Mukiibi
The document discusses reduced instruction set computers (RISC) and compares them to complex instruction set computers (CISC). Key characteristics of RISC include simple, uniform instructions that are executed in one cycle; register-to-register operations with simple addressing modes; and a large number of registers to optimize register usage and minimize memory accesses. Studies show programs use simple operations, operands, and addressing modes most frequently, informing the RISC design which aims to efficiently support common cases through hard-wired, streamlined instructions.
This document discusses various topics related to embedded computing platform design including:
1. It outlines the syllabus which covers topics like CPU buses, memory systems, embedded development platforms, consumer electronics architecture, performance analysis, and program optimization.
2. It provides examples of embedded platforms like Raspberry Pi and BeagleBoard and discusses factors to consider when choosing a platform.
3. It describes techniques for debugging programs on embedded hardware including using USB tools, breakpoints, LEDs, in-circuit emulation, and logic analyzers.
4. It discusses analyzing and optimizing program performance at both the platform and code level through techniques like measuring execution times, understanding cache and pipeline effects, and optimizing loops
This document discusses instruction pipelining in computer processors. It begins by defining pipelining and explaining how it works like an assembly line to increase throughput. It then discusses different types of pipelines and introduces the MIPS instruction pipeline as an example. The document goes on to explain different types of pipeline hazards like structural hazards, control hazards, and data hazards. It provides examples of how to detect and resolve these hazards through techniques like forwarding, stalling, predicting, and delayed branching. Key concepts covered include pipeline registers, control signals, forwarding units, and branch prediction buffers.
Instruction Level Parallelism and Superscalar ProcessorsSyed Zaid Irshad
Common instructions (arithmetic, load/store, conditional branch) can be initiated and executed independently
Equally applicable to RISC & CISC
In practice usually RISC
Unit 1 Computer organization and InstructionsBalaji Vignesh
The document discusses computer architecture and organization. It defines a computer as a programmable machine that can manipulate data according to instructions. It describes how calculations were originally done by human computers before electronic computers were developed. It discusses computer components, applications, and generations of computers. It outlines eight design ideas for computer architecture, including designing for Moore's Law, using abstraction, prioritizing common tasks, and incorporating parallelism, pipelining, prediction, memory hierarchy, and redundancy. Performance metrics like execution time and throughput are also covered.
Pipelining is a technique where multiple instructions are overlapped during execution by dividing the instruction cycle into stages connected in a pipeline structure. There are two main types of pipelines - instruction pipelines which overlap the fetch, decode, and execute phases of instructions to improve throughput, and arithmetic pipelines used for floating point and fixed point operations. Pipeline conflicts can occur due to timing variations, data hazards, branching, interrupts, or data dependency which reduce the pipeline's performance. The main advantages of pipelining are reduced cycle time, increased throughput, and improved reliability, while the main disadvantage is increased complexity, cost, and instruction latency.
The document discusses parallel processing and pipelining. It defines parallel processing as performing concurrent data processing to achieve faster execution. This can be done by having multiple ALUs that can execute instructions simultaneously. The document then discusses Flynn's classification of computer architectures based on instruction and data streams. It describes single instruction single data (SISD), multiple instruction single data (MISD), and multiple instruction multiple data (MIMD) architectures. The document then defines pipelining as decomposing processes into sub-operations that flow through pipeline stages. It provides examples of arithmetic and instruction pipelines, describing the stages in each.
Computer architecture refers to the operational design of a computer system. This lecture focuses on the memory subsystem aspects of computer architecture, including memory hierarchy, memory performance, cache organization and operation, random access memory technologies, and bus interfaces. Key topics discussed are memory hierarchy principles like smaller and faster memory levels, cache hit rates, direct mapped, set associative, and write-back caching techniques, and differences between static and dynamic random access memory technologies.
The document discusses the structure and function of the central processing unit (CPU). It covers the following key points in 3 sentences:
The CPU must fetch, decode, and process instructions, fetching any required data. It uses registers for temporary storage and processing, including general purpose, data, address, and condition code registers. Different CPU designs vary in the number and functions of registers, which are the top level of the memory hierarchy.
This document discusses the evolution of computer architecture from CISC to RISC designs. It covers major advances like cache memory and microprocessors that enabled RISC. Key RISC features include large register files optimized via register allocation algorithms. Pipelining is optimized in RISC via techniques like delayed branching. While CISC aimed to simplify compilers, RISC focuses on optimizing instruction execution through techniques like register referencing and simplified instruction sets. The document also notes ongoing debates around quantitatively and qualitatively comparing RISC and CISC designs.
The document discusses superscalar processors and provides details about the Pentium 4 architecture as an example of a superscalar CISC machine. It covers topics such as instruction issue policies, register renaming, branch prediction, and the 20 stage pipeline of the Pentium 4. The Pentium 4 decodes x86 instructions into micro-ops, allocates registers and resources out of order, and can dispatch up to 6 micro-ops per cycle to execution units.
This document discusses superscalar and super pipeline approaches to improving processor performance. Superscalar processors execute multiple independent instructions in parallel using multiple pipelines. Super pipelines break pipeline stages into smaller stages to reduce clock period and increase instruction throughput. While superscalar utilizes multiple parallel pipelines, super pipelines perform multiple stages per clock cycle in each pipeline. Super pipelines benefit from higher parallelism but also increase potential stalls from dependencies. Both approaches aim to maximize parallel instruction execution but face limitations from true data and other dependencies.
This document discusses various system design techniques and networks. It begins with an overview of design methodologies like waterfall model, spiral model, and concurrent engineering. It then covers topics like requirements analysis, specifications, CRC cards for system analysis, and quality assurance techniques. It discusses several distributed embedded systems including CAN bus, I2C, Ethernet, and the Internet. It concludes with sections on multiprocessor system-on-chips and shared memory multiprocessors.
This document discusses different types of computer memory. It classifies memory as register, main memory, and secondary memory based on location. It also distinguishes between sequential access memory like tapes and random access memory like RAM. RAM is further divided into static and dynamic RAM. Memory is also classified as volatile and non-volatile based on whether data is retained when power is removed. ROM and RAM are discussed as examples of magnetic and semiconductor memory respectively. ROM is programmed during manufacturing and performs only read operations, while RAM allows both read and write.
This document discusses instruction pipelining and various techniques used to handle hazards that can occur in pipelined processors. It describes a 6-stage instruction pipeline consisting of fetch, decode, calculate operands, fetch operands, execute, and write-back stages. There are three main types of hazards: resource hazards which occur when instructions need the same processor resource; data hazards which occur when an instruction uses a value not yet ready from a previous instruction; and control hazards which occur when the program flow changes due to a branch. Solutions to handle these hazards include branch prediction, delayed branching, pipeline stalls, and maintaining multiple instruction streams.
The document discusses parallel processing and provides classifications of parallel computer architectures. It describes Flynn's classification of computer architectures as single instruction stream single data stream (SISD), single instruction stream multiple data stream (SIMD), multiple instruction stream single data stream (MISD), and multiple instruction stream multiple data stream (MIMD). It also discusses pipeline computers, array processors, and multiprocessor systems as different architectural configurations for parallel computers. Pipelining is described as a technique to decompose a process into sub-operations that execute concurrently in dedicated segments to achieve overlapping computation.
Interstage buffer B1 feeds the Decode stage with a newly-fetched instruction.
Interstage buffer B2 feeds the Compute stage with the two operands
Interstage buffer B3 holds the result of the ALU operation
Interstage buffer B4 feeds the Write stage with a value to be written into the register file
The document discusses memory organization and hierarchy. It describes that memory enables data storage and follows the principle of locality. There are two types of locality - temporal and spatial. The memory hierarchy uses multiple memory levels with increasing access times but also sizes as the levels are further from the CPU. This structure is useful due to the principle of locality. The memory hierarchy consists of CPU registers, cache/SRAM, main memory/DRAM, local disks, and remote storage.
This presentation discusses array processors, which are parallel computers composed of multiple identical processing elements that can operate simultaneously. The presentation covers the history of array processors, how they work, classifications, architectures, performance and scalability. It explains that array processors are well-suited for tasks involving repetitive arithmetic operations on large datasets, as they can improve performance for such workloads, but may not provide benefits for operations with data dependencies or decisions based on computations.
The document discusses parallelism and techniques to improve computer performance through parallel execution. It describes instruction level parallelism (ILP) where multiple instructions can be executed simultaneously through techniques like pipelining and superscalar processing. It also discusses processor level parallelism using multiple processors or processor cores to concurrently execute different tasks or threads.
This chapter discusses processor structure and function. It covers the basic components of a CPU including registers, instruction cycles, and data flow. Key points include:
- A CPU must fetch, interpret, fetch operands for, process, and write data from instructions. It uses registers for temporary storage and a program counter to keep track of instructions.
- Common registers include general purpose, data, address, condition code, control/status, and program status registers. General purpose registers can vary in number, size, and whether they are general or specialized use.
- An instruction cycle involves fetching an instruction from memory, decoding it, fetching operands, executing the instruction, and writing results. Pipelining and branch prediction are
The CPU must fetch, interpret, and process instructions and data. It uses registers for temporary storage and as the top level of memory hierarchy. Registers include general purpose registers for data and addressing, condition code registers for tracking results, and control/status registers for functions like instruction decoding. Modern CPUs use pipelining to overlap the fetch, decode, execute, and writeback stages of instruction processing. They employ techniques like branch prediction and instruction prefetching to optimize pipeline performance in the presence of branches.
Advanced computer architecture lesson 5 and 6Ismail Mukiibi
The document discusses reduced instruction set computers (RISC) and compares them to complex instruction set computers (CISC). Key characteristics of RISC include simple, uniform instructions that are executed in one cycle; register-to-register operations with simple addressing modes; and a large number of registers to optimize register usage and minimize memory accesses. Studies show programs use simple operations, operands, and addressing modes most frequently, informing the RISC design which aims to efficiently support common cases through hard-wired, streamlined instructions.
This document discusses various topics related to embedded computing platform design including:
1. It outlines the syllabus which covers topics like CPU buses, memory systems, embedded development platforms, consumer electronics architecture, performance analysis, and program optimization.
2. It provides examples of embedded platforms like Raspberry Pi and BeagleBoard and discusses factors to consider when choosing a platform.
3. It describes techniques for debugging programs on embedded hardware including using USB tools, breakpoints, LEDs, in-circuit emulation, and logic analyzers.
4. It discusses analyzing and optimizing program performance at both the platform and code level through techniques like measuring execution times, understanding cache and pipeline effects, and optimizing loops
This document discusses instruction pipelining in computer processors. It begins by defining pipelining and explaining how it works like an assembly line to increase throughput. It then discusses different types of pipelines and introduces the MIPS instruction pipeline as an example. The document goes on to explain different types of pipeline hazards like structural hazards, control hazards, and data hazards. It provides examples of how to detect and resolve these hazards through techniques like forwarding, stalling, predicting, and delayed branching. Key concepts covered include pipeline registers, control signals, forwarding units, and branch prediction buffers.
Instruction Level Parallelism and Superscalar ProcessorsSyed Zaid Irshad
Common instructions (arithmetic, load/store, conditional branch) can be initiated and executed independently
Equally applicable to RISC & CISC
In practice usually RISC
Unit 1 Computer organization and InstructionsBalaji Vignesh
The document discusses computer architecture and organization. It defines a computer as a programmable machine that can manipulate data according to instructions. It describes how calculations were originally done by human computers before electronic computers were developed. It discusses computer components, applications, and generations of computers. It outlines eight design ideas for computer architecture, including designing for Moore's Law, using abstraction, prioritizing common tasks, and incorporating parallelism, pipelining, prediction, memory hierarchy, and redundancy. Performance metrics like execution time and throughput are also covered.
Pipelining is a technique where multiple instructions are overlapped during execution by dividing the instruction cycle into stages connected in a pipeline structure. There are two main types of pipelines - instruction pipelines which overlap the fetch, decode, and execute phases of instructions to improve throughput, and arithmetic pipelines used for floating point and fixed point operations. Pipeline conflicts can occur due to timing variations, data hazards, branching, interrupts, or data dependency which reduce the pipeline's performance. The main advantages of pipelining are reduced cycle time, increased throughput, and improved reliability, while the main disadvantage is increased complexity, cost, and instruction latency.
The document discusses parallel processing and pipelining. It defines parallel processing as performing concurrent data processing to achieve faster execution. This can be done by having multiple ALUs that can execute instructions simultaneously. The document then discusses Flynn's classification of computer architectures based on instruction and data streams. It describes single instruction single data (SISD), multiple instruction single data (MISD), and multiple instruction multiple data (MIMD) architectures. The document then defines pipelining as decomposing processes into sub-operations that flow through pipeline stages. It provides examples of arithmetic and instruction pipelines, describing the stages in each.
Computer architecture refers to the operational design of a computer system. This lecture focuses on the memory subsystem aspects of computer architecture, including memory hierarchy, memory performance, cache organization and operation, random access memory technologies, and bus interfaces. Key topics discussed are memory hierarchy principles like smaller and faster memory levels, cache hit rates, direct mapped, set associative, and write-back caching techniques, and differences between static and dynamic random access memory technologies.
The document discusses the structure and function of the central processing unit (CPU). It covers the following key points in 3 sentences:
The CPU must fetch, decode, and process instructions, fetching any required data. It uses registers for temporary storage and processing, including general purpose, data, address, and condition code registers. Different CPU designs vary in the number and functions of registers, which are the top level of the memory hierarchy.
This document discusses the evolution of computer architecture from CISC to RISC designs. It covers major advances like cache memory and microprocessors that enabled RISC. Key RISC features include large register files optimized via register allocation algorithms. Pipelining is optimized in RISC via techniques like delayed branching. While CISC aimed to simplify compilers, RISC focuses on optimizing instruction execution through techniques like register referencing and simplified instruction sets. The document also notes ongoing debates around quantitatively and qualitatively comparing RISC and CISC designs.
The document discusses superscalar processors and provides details about the Pentium 4 architecture as an example of a superscalar CISC machine. It covers topics such as instruction issue policies, register renaming, branch prediction, and the 20 stage pipeline of the Pentium 4. The Pentium 4 decodes x86 instructions into micro-ops, allocates registers and resources out of order, and can dispatch up to 6 micro-ops per cycle to execution units.
This document discusses superscalar and super pipeline approaches to improving processor performance. Superscalar processors execute multiple independent instructions in parallel using multiple pipelines. Super pipelines break pipeline stages into smaller stages to reduce clock period and increase instruction throughput. While superscalar utilizes multiple parallel pipelines, super pipelines perform multiple stages per clock cycle in each pipeline. Super pipelines benefit from higher parallelism but also increase potential stalls from dependencies. Both approaches aim to maximize parallel instruction execution but face limitations from true data and other dependencies.
This document discusses various system design techniques and networks. It begins with an overview of design methodologies like waterfall model, spiral model, and concurrent engineering. It then covers topics like requirements analysis, specifications, CRC cards for system analysis, and quality assurance techniques. It discusses several distributed embedded systems including CAN bus, I2C, Ethernet, and the Internet. It concludes with sections on multiprocessor system-on-chips and shared memory multiprocessors.
This document discusses different types of computer memory. It classifies memory as register, main memory, and secondary memory based on location. It also distinguishes between sequential access memory like tapes and random access memory like RAM. RAM is further divided into static and dynamic RAM. Memory is also classified as volatile and non-volatile based on whether data is retained when power is removed. ROM and RAM are discussed as examples of magnetic and semiconductor memory respectively. ROM is programmed during manufacturing and performs only read operations, while RAM allows both read and write.
This document discusses instruction pipelining and various techniques used to handle hazards that can occur in pipelined processors. It describes a 6-stage instruction pipeline consisting of fetch, decode, calculate operands, fetch operands, execute, and write-back stages. There are three main types of hazards: resource hazards which occur when instructions need the same processor resource; data hazards which occur when an instruction uses a value not yet ready from a previous instruction; and control hazards which occur when the program flow changes due to a branch. Solutions to handle these hazards include branch prediction, delayed branching, pipeline stalls, and maintaining multiple instruction streams.
The document discusses parallel processing and provides classifications of parallel computer architectures. It describes Flynn's classification of computer architectures as single instruction stream single data stream (SISD), single instruction stream multiple data stream (SIMD), multiple instruction stream single data stream (MISD), and multiple instruction stream multiple data stream (MIMD). It also discusses pipeline computers, array processors, and multiprocessor systems as different architectural configurations for parallel computers. Pipelining is described as a technique to decompose a process into sub-operations that execute concurrently in dedicated segments to achieve overlapping computation.
Interstage buffer B1 feeds the Decode stage with a newly-fetched instruction.
Interstage buffer B2 feeds the Compute stage with the two operands
Interstage buffer B3 holds the result of the ALU operation
Interstage buffer B4 feeds the Write stage with a value to be written into the register file
The document discusses memory organization and hierarchy. It describes that memory enables data storage and follows the principle of locality. There are two types of locality - temporal and spatial. The memory hierarchy uses multiple memory levels with increasing access times but also sizes as the levels are further from the CPU. This structure is useful due to the principle of locality. The memory hierarchy consists of CPU registers, cache/SRAM, main memory/DRAM, local disks, and remote storage.
This presentation discusses array processors, which are parallel computers composed of multiple identical processing elements that can operate simultaneously. The presentation covers the history of array processors, how they work, classifications, architectures, performance and scalability. It explains that array processors are well-suited for tasks involving repetitive arithmetic operations on large datasets, as they can improve performance for such workloads, but may not provide benefits for operations with data dependencies or decisions based on computations.
The document discusses parallelism and techniques to improve computer performance through parallel execution. It describes instruction level parallelism (ILP) where multiple instructions can be executed simultaneously through techniques like pipelining and superscalar processing. It also discusses processor level parallelism using multiple processors or processor cores to concurrently execute different tasks or threads.
This chapter discusses processor structure and function. It covers the basic components of a CPU including registers, instruction cycles, and data flow. Key points include:
- A CPU must fetch, interpret, fetch operands for, process, and write data from instructions. It uses registers for temporary storage and a program counter to keep track of instructions.
- Common registers include general purpose, data, address, condition code, control/status, and program status registers. General purpose registers can vary in number, size, and whether they are general or specialized use.
- An instruction cycle involves fetching an instruction from memory, decoding it, fetching operands, executing the instruction, and writing results. Pipelining and branch prediction are
The CPU must fetch, interpret, and process instructions and data. It uses registers for temporary storage and as the top level of memory hierarchy. Registers include general purpose registers for data and addressing, condition code registers for tracking results, and control/status registers for functions like instruction decoding. Modern CPUs use pipelining to overlap the fetch, decode, execute, and writeback stages of instruction processing. They employ techniques like branch prediction and instruction prefetching to optimize pipeline performance in the presence of branches.
CPU Structure and Design
Computer Arch and Organization
learn how it works and the uses of the components and parts aswell.
this presentation is intended for those who are new to the ICT or already have some familiarity with working computers .
this tutorial was arranged and organized by enineer Gabiye
This document provides information about a computer systems course, including the lecturer, textbook, and recommended reading. It then summarizes the key topics that will be covered in the course, including computer structure, central processing unit components like registers and instruction cycles, memory hierarchy with caches, input/output techniques like programmed I/O and interrupt-driven I/O, and other concepts.
top level view of computer function and interconnectionSajid Marwat
The document summarizes key concepts from Chapter 3 of William Stallings' Computer Organization and Architecture textbook. It describes the top-level view of computer function and interconnection, including:
- The components of a computer system and how they interconnect via buses
- Common bus types like data, address, and control buses
- Bus arbitration and timing, whether synchronous or asynchronous
- Specific bus architectures like ISA and PCI buses
It provides instruction on computer organization concepts like instruction cycles, interrupts, and program flow control at a high level.
03 top level view of computer function and interconnection.ppt.encAnwal Mirza
The document summarizes key topics from Chapter 3 of William Stallings' Computer Organization and Architecture textbook, including:
1) It describes the basic components of a computer including the control unit, arithmetic logic unit, main memory, and input/output.
2) It explains the fetch-execute instruction cycle and how interrupts can alter the normal flow of instruction processing.
3) It discusses different types of computer buses that connect the central processing unit to main memory and input/output devices, such as data, address, and control buses, and how bus arbitration works.
The document discusses computer system buses and how they connect different components. It describes how buses carry data, addresses, and control signals between the CPU, memory, and I/O devices. It explains that buses can be synchronous or asynchronous and include address buses, data buses, and control buses. Common bus types like PCI are also covered.
The document provides a top-level overview of the major components and functioning of a computer system. It discusses how programs are executed through instruction cycles that involve fetching and executing instructions from memory. It describes the role of the control unit in coordinating operations and issuing control signals. The major components of a computer - CPU, memory, and I/O - are interconnected through buses that transfer data, addresses, and control signals. Interrupts allow other devices to interrupt normal instruction processing.
This chapter discusses input/output (I/O) in computer systems. It covers the challenges posed by different peripheral devices having varying data amounts, speeds, and formats. I/O modules are used to interface between the CPU/memory and peripherals. The chapter describes various I/O module functions and the steps involved in I/O operations. It then discusses three main techniques for I/O - programmed I/O, interrupt-driven I/O, and direct memory access (DMA). Specific I/O components like the 8259A interrupt controller and 8237A DMA controller are also covered. The chapter concludes by examining external device types and I/O communication standards like FireWire and InfiniBand
The document summarizes instruction level parallelism and superscalar processors. It discusses how superscalar processors can fetch and execute multiple instructions simultaneously by taking advantage of independent instructions that do not have data dependencies. True data dependencies, procedural dependencies, resource conflicts, output dependencies, and antidependencies limit the degree of instruction level parallelism. The document then describes the design of superscalar processors including instruction issue policies, register renaming, and other techniques to enable out-of-order execution. It provides examples of superscalar processor implementations like the Pentium 4 and ARM Cortex-A8.
This document provides an overview of memory management techniques in operating systems. It discusses contiguous memory allocation, segmentation, paging, and swapping. Contiguous allocation allocates processes to contiguous sections of memory which can lead to fragmentation issues. Segmentation divides memory into logical segments defined by segment tables. Paging divides memory into fixed-size pages and uses page tables to map virtual to physical addresses, avoiding external fragmentation. Swapping moves processes between main memory and disk to allow more processes to reside in memory than will physically fit. The document describes the hardware and data structures used to implement these techniques.
03 top level view of computer function and interconnectionSher Shah Merkhel
The document summarizes key topics from Chapter 3 of William Stallings' Computer Organization and Architecture textbook, including:
- The components of a computer including the control unit, ALU, main memory, and I/O.
- How programs are executed through an instruction cycle of fetching and executing instructions.
- Mechanisms for flow control including interrupts, program counters, and jumps.
- How the different computer components are interconnected through buses for data, addresses, and control signals.
- Common bus architectures and how arbitration works to allow shared access to buses.
The document provides an overview of computer function and interconnection. It discusses the basic components of a computer system including the CPU, memory, and I/O devices. It describes the Von Neumann architecture with a single memory to store both instructions and data. It then explains the fetch-execute cycle of instruction processing and how interrupts can alter the normal flow of a program. Finally, it discusses common interconnection structures like bus architectures and the elements involved in bus design.
This document provides an overview of basic computer system components and their functions. It discusses how the operating system exploits hardware resources to provide services to users while managing memory and I/O devices. The basic elements of a computer system include the processor, main memory, I/O modules, and system bus. The document describes processor registers, instruction execution, interrupts, memory hierarchy including cache, and I/O methods like programmed, interrupt-driven and direct memory access.
Computer organization & architecture chapter-1Shah Rukh Rayaz
The document provides an introduction to computer organization and architecture. It discusses the structure and function of computers, including data processing, storage, and movement functions. It also explains why this course is studied. The document then outlines the topics that will be covered in subsequent chapters, including computer evolution and performance, basic computer components and functions, and interconnection structures. It provides an overview of cache memory principles and the memory hierarchy in general.
This chapter discusses various memory management techniques used in computer systems, including segmentation, paging, and swapping. Segmentation divides memory into variable-length logical segments, while paging divides it into fixed-size pages that can be mapped to non-contiguous physical frames. Paging requires a page table to map virtual to physical addresses and allows processes to exceed physical memory by swapping pages to disk. The chapter describes address translation hardware like TLBs, protection mechanisms, and issues like fragmentation.
For students wk4_computer_function_and_interconnectionlimyamahgoub
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Choc Co. is a global confectionery business with over 150 years of history. While sales have been positive, the company is prioritizing cost reductions. It wants to preserve its reputation for employee development but ensure training provides a clear return on investment. Traditionally, training has been gap-led and identified needs of workers rather than by workers. Training events are seen as outdated and a waste of time. The head of learning and development wants to reduce reliance on external providers and long training programs to cut costs and improve efficiency.
The document discusses employee training and development. It describes the training process, which includes assessing needs, designing programs, selecting instruction methods, implementing training, and evaluating. It covers orienting new employees and common training methods like lectures, hands-on learning, and computer-based training. Management development techniques are also outlined, such as on-the-job training, case studies, and corporate universities. The document emphasizes evaluating training at multiple levels from reaction to learning to behavior and business results.
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This document discusses recruitment and personnel planning. It covers workforce planning, forecasting personnel needs, forecasting the supply of inside and outside candidates, and internal and external sources of recruitment. Internal sources include promotions, transfers, former employees, and job postings. External sources include advertising, employment agencies, executive recruiters, campus recruitment, employee referrals, internet recruiting, and walk-ins. Advantages and disadvantages of internal and external recruitment are also presented.
Talent management involves integrating processes like planning, recruiting, developing, managing, and compensating employees. It uses job analysis to determine job duties, requirements, and ideal candidates. Job analysis involves collecting information through methods like interviews, questionnaires, and observation to write job descriptions and specifications. This helps with recruitment, compensation, performance reviews, and legal compliance.
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This document discusses various challenges faced by human resource management (HRM) in three main categories: environmental, organizational, and individual. For environmental challenges, it describes how rapid change, workforce diversity, globalization, legislation, technology changes, and evolving job/family roles present difficulties for HRM. Organizational challenges discussed include controlling costs, improving quality, developing capabilities, and restructuring. Finally, individual challenges addressed are productivity, empowerment, brain drain, ethics, job insecurity, and matching employees to organizations. The document also examines HRM's role in reengineering processes, managing transfers, and handling promotions within an organization.
The Ministry of Interior in Pakistan is responsible for implementing domestic policies, national security, and managing internal affairs. It assists the government on issues relating to Federally Administered Tribal Areas and Provincially Administered Tribal Areas.
1. The document describes the control panel of a nuclear power reactor, including sub-panels for alarms, emergency shutdown, and manually overriding reactor targets.
2. It provides details of an accident scenario where the reactor operator fails to manually override the reactor pressure target in time through a series of interface issues, leading to near core meltdown.
3. Questions are asked about the use of color coding, layout, and visual elements in the control panels and how they could be improved to prevent similar problems.
This document discusses various aspects of user interface design, including graphical user interfaces, interaction styles, information presentation, error messages, help systems, and user documentation. It provides descriptions and comparisons of different interface design approaches such as direct manipulation, menus, forms, command languages, and natural language interfaces. It also outlines principles for user-centered design and guidelines for effective user interface design.
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User-centered design (UCD) is a process that focuses on understanding the needs of users through techniques like personas, scenarios, wireframing, paper prototyping, user testing, contextual inquiries, diary studies, user workshops, and card sorting. This helps inform the vision and ensures the final product matches user needs. The key principle is to know the user.
The document discusses the importance of usability in web design. It defines usability as the extent to which a product is effective, efficient, and satisfying to use for its intended users. The goal of usability testing is to better understand how real users interact with a product and improve it based on those results. Usability principles include keeping the user informed, using familiar language, preventing errors, making objects and actions visible, and providing help and documentation.
This document provides an overview of interaction design basics including the design process, users, scenarios, navigation design, and principles of interface design. It discusses designing with the user and goals in mind while considering constraints. The design process involves analysis, prototyping, and evaluation. Scenarios help envision how users will interact. Navigation design principles include structure, breadcrumbs, and diagrams. Interface design principles cover grouping, order, alignment, white space, controls, and user feedback.
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Neo4j - Product Vision and Knowledge Graphs - GraphSummit ParisNeo4j
Dr. Jesús Barrasa, Head of Solutions Architecture for EMEA, Neo4j
Découvrez les dernières innovations de Neo4j, et notamment les dernières intégrations cloud et les améliorations produits qui font de Neo4j un choix essentiel pour les développeurs qui créent des applications avec des données interconnectées et de l’IA générative.
Introducing Crescat - Event Management Software for Venues, Festivals and Eve...Crescat
Crescat is industry-trusted event management software, built by event professionals for event professionals. Founded in 2017, we have three key products tailored for the live event industry.
Crescat Event for concert promoters and event agencies. Crescat Venue for music venues, conference centers, wedding venues, concert halls and more. And Crescat Festival for festivals, conferences and complex events.
With a wide range of popular features such as event scheduling, shift management, volunteer and crew coordination, artist booking and much more, Crescat is designed for customisation and ease-of-use.
Over 125,000 events have been planned in Crescat and with hundreds of customers of all shapes and sizes, from boutique event agencies through to international concert promoters, Crescat is rigged for success. What's more, we highly value feedback from our users and we are constantly improving our software with updates, new features and improvements.
If you plan events, run a venue or produce festivals and you're looking for ways to make your life easier, then we have a solution for you. Try our software for free or schedule a no-obligation demo with one of our product specialists today at crescat.io
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The claim of launching a streaming platform in minutes might be a bit of an exaggeration, but there are services that can significantly streamline the process. Here's a breakdown:
Pros of Speedy Streaming Platform Launch Services:
No coding required: These services often use drag-and-drop interfaces or pre-built templates, eliminating the need for programming knowledge.
Faster setup: Compared to building from scratch, these platforms can get you up and running much quicker.
All-in-one solutions: Many services offer features like content management systems (CMS), video players, and monetization tools, reducing the need for multiple integrations.
Things to Consider:
Limited customization: These platforms may offer less flexibility in design and functionality compared to custom-built solutions.
Scalability: As your audience grows, you might need to upgrade to a more robust platform or encounter limitations with the "quick launch" option.
Features: Carefully evaluate which features are included and if they meet your specific needs (e.g., live streaming, subscription options).
Examples of Services for Launching Streaming Platforms:
Muvi [muvi com]
Uscreen [usencreen tv]
Alternatives to Consider:
Existing Streaming platforms: Platforms like YouTube or Twitch might be suitable for basic streaming needs, though monetization options might be limited.
Custom Development: While more time-consuming, custom development offers the most control and flexibility for your platform.
Overall, launching a streaming platform in minutes might not be entirely realistic, but these services can significantly speed up the process compared to building from scratch. Carefully consider your needs and budget when choosing the best option for you.
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WhatsApp offers simple, reliable, and private messaging and calling services for free worldwide. With end-to-end encryption, your personal messages and calls are secure, ensuring only you and the recipient can access them. Enjoy voice and video calls to stay connected with loved ones or colleagues. Express yourself using stickers, GIFs, or by sharing moments on Status. WhatsApp Business enables global customer outreach, facilitating sales growth and relationship building through showcasing products and services. Stay connected effortlessly with group chats for planning outings with friends or staying updated on family conversations.
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Could you use a simple piece of Scala validation code (granted, a very simplistic one too!) that you can rewrite, now and again, to refresh your basic understanding of Applicative operators <*>, <*, *>?
The goal is not to write perfect code showcasing validation, but rather, to provide a small, rough-and ready exercise to reinforce your muscle-memory.
Despite its grandiose-sounding title, this deck consists of just three slides showing the Scala 3 code to be rewritten whenever the details of the operators begin to fade away.
The code is my rough and ready translation of a Haskell user-validation program found in a book called Finding Success (and Failure) in Haskell - Fall in love with applicative functors.
Utilocate offers a comprehensive solution for locate ticket management by automating and streamlining the entire process. By integrating with Geospatial Information Systems (GIS), it provides accurate mapping and visualization of utility locations, enhancing decision-making and reducing the risk of errors. The system's advanced data analytics tools help identify trends, predict potential issues, and optimize resource allocation, making the locate ticket management process smarter and more efficient. Additionally, automated ticket management ensures consistency and reduces human error, while real-time notifications keep all relevant personnel informed and ready to respond promptly.
The system's ability to streamline workflows and automate ticket routing significantly reduces the time taken to process each ticket, making the process faster and more efficient. Mobile access allows field technicians to update ticket information on the go, ensuring that the latest information is always available and accelerating the locate process. Overall, Utilocate not only enhances the efficiency and accuracy of locate ticket management but also improves safety by minimizing the risk of utility damage through precise and timely locates.
Need for Speed: Removing speed bumps from your Symfony projects ⚡️Łukasz Chruściel
No one wants their application to drag like a car stuck in the slow lane! Yet it’s all too common to encounter bumpy, pothole-filled solutions that slow the speed of any application. Symfony apps are not an exception.
In this talk, I will take you for a spin around the performance racetrack. We’ll explore common pitfalls - those hidden potholes on your application that can cause unexpected slowdowns. Learn how to spot these performance bumps early, and more importantly, how to navigate around them to keep your application running at top speed.
We will focus in particular on tuning your engine at the application level, making the right adjustments to ensure that your system responds like a well-oiled, high-performance race car.
5. Registers
• CPU must have some working space
(temporary storage)
• Called registers
• Number and function vary between
processor designs
• One of the major design decisions
• Top level of memory hierarchy
7. General Purpose Registers (1)
• May be true general purpose
• May be restricted
• May be used for data or addressing
• Data
—Accumulator
• Addressing
—Segment
8. General Purpose Registers (2)
• Make them general purpose
—Increase flexibility and programmer options
—Increase instruction size & complexity
• Make them specialized
—Smaller (faster) instructions
—Less flexibility
9. How Many GP Registers?
• Between 8 - 32
• Fewer = more memory references
• More does not reduce memory references
and takes up processor real estate
• See also RISC
10. How big?
• Large enough to hold full address
• Large enough to hold full word
• Often possible to combine two data
registers
—C programming
—double int a;
—long int a;
11. Condition Code Registers
• Sets of individual bits
—e.g. result of last operation was zero
• Can be read (implicitly) by programs
—e.g. Jump if zero
• Can not (usually) be set by programs
12. Control & Status Registers
• Program Counter
• Instruction Decoding Register
• Memory Address Register
• Memory Buffer Register
• Revision: what do these all do?
13. Program Status Word
• A set of bits
• Includes Condition Codes
• Sign of last result
• Zero
• Carry
• Equal
• Overflow
• Interrupt enable/disable
• Supervisor
14. Supervisor Mode
• Intel ring zero
• Kernel mode
• Allows privileged instructions to execute
• Used by operating system
• Not available to user programs
15. Other Registers
• May have registers pointing to:
—Process control blocks (see O/S)
—Interrupt Vectors (see O/S)
• N.B. CPU design and operating system
design are closely linked
18. Indirect Cycle
• May require memory access to fetch
operands
• Indirect addressing requires more
memory accesses
• Can be thought of as additional instruction
subcycle
21. Data Flow (Instruction Fetch)
• Depends on CPU design
• In general:
• Fetch
—PC contains address of next instruction
—Address moved to MAR
—Address placed on address bus
—Control unit requests memory read
—Result placed on data bus, copied to MBR,
then to IR
—Meanwhile PC incremented by 1
22. Data Flow (Data Fetch)
• IR is examined
• If indirect addressing, indirect cycle is
performed
—Right most N bits of MBR transferred to MAR
—Control unit requests memory read
—Result (address of operand) moved to MBR
25. Data Flow (Execute)
• May take many forms
• Depends on instruction being executed
• May include
—Memory read/write
—Input/Output
—Register transfers
—ALU operations
26. Data Flow (Interrupt)
• Simple
• Predictable
• Current PC saved to allow resumption
after interrupt
• Contents of PC copied to MBR
• Special memory location (e.g. stack
pointer) loaded to MAR
• MBR written to memory
• PC loaded with address of interrupt
handling routine
• Next instruction (first of interrupt handler)
can be fetched
28. Prefetch
• Fetch accessing main memory
• Execution usually does not access main
memory
• Can fetch next instruction during
execution of current instruction
• Called instruction prefetch
29. Improved Performance
• But not doubled:
—Fetch usually shorter than execution
– Prefetch more than one instruction?
—Any jump or branch means that prefetched
instructions are not the required instructions
• Add more stages to improve performance
37. Pipeline Hazards
• Pipeline, or some portion of pipeline, must
stall
• Also called pipeline bubble
• Types of hazards
—Resource
—Data
—Control
38. Resource Hazards
• Two (or more) instructions in pipeline need same resource
• Executed in serial rather than parallel for part of pipeline
• Also called structural hazard
• E.g. Assume simplified five-stage pipeline
— Each stage takes one clock cycle
• Ideal case is new instruction enters pipeline each clock cycle
• Assume main memory has single port
• Assume instruction fetches and data reads and writes performed
one at a time
• Ignore the cache
• Operand read or write cannot be performed in parallel with
instruction fetch
• Fetch instruction stage must idle for one cycle fetching I3
• E.g. multiple instructions ready to enter execute instruction phase
• Single ALU
• One solution: increase available resources
— Multiple main memory ports
— Multiple ALUs
39. Data Hazards
• Conflict in access of an operand location
• Two instructions to be executed in sequence
• Both access a particular memory or register operand
• If in strict sequence, no problem occurs
• If in a pipeline, operand value could be updated so as to
produce different result from strict sequential execution
• E.g. x86 machine instruction sequence:
• ADD EAX, EBX /* EAX = EAX + EBX
• SUB ECX, EAX /* ECX = ECX – EAX
• ADD instruction does not update EAX until end of stage 5,
at clock cycle 5
• SUB instruction needs value at beginning of its stage 2, at
clock cycle 4
• Pipeline must stall for two clocks cycles
• Without special hardware and specific avoidance
algorithms, results in inefficient pipeline usage
41. Types of Data Hazard
• Read after write (RAW), or true dependency
—An instruction modifies a register or memory location
—Succeeding instruction reads data in that location
—Hazard if read takes place before write complete
• Write after read (RAW), or antidependency
—An instruction reads a register or memory location
—Succeeding instruction writes to location
—Hazard if write completes before read takes place
• Write after write (RAW), or output dependency
—Two instructions both write to same location
—Hazard if writes take place in reverse of order intended
sequence
• Previous example is RAW hazard
• See also Chapter 14
44. Control Hazard
• Also known as branch hazard
• Pipeline makes wrong decision on branch
prediction
• Brings instructions into pipeline that must
subsequently be discarded
• Dealing with Branches
—Multiple Streams
—Prefetch Branch Target
—Loop buffer
—Branch prediction
—Delayed branching
45. Multiple Streams
• Have two pipelines
• Prefetch each branch into a separate
pipeline
• Use appropriate pipeline
• Leads to bus & register contention
• Multiple branches lead to further pipelines
being needed
46. Prefetch Branch Target
• Target of branch is prefetched in addition
to instructions following branch
• Keep target until branch is executed
• Used by IBM 360/91
47. Loop Buffer
• Very fast memory
• Maintained by fetch stage of pipeline
• Check buffer before fetching from
memory
• Very good for small loops or jumps
• c.f. cache
• Used by CRAY-1
49. Branch Prediction (1)
• Predict never taken
—Assume that jump will not happen
—Always fetch next instruction
—68020 & VAX 11/780
—VAX will not prefetch after branch if a page
fault would result (O/S v CPU design)
• Predict always taken
—Assume that jump will happen
—Always fetch target instruction
50. Branch Prediction (2)
• Predict by Opcode
—Some instructions are more likely to result in a
jump than thers
—Can get up to 75% success
• Taken/Not taken switch
—Based on previous history
—Good for loops
—Refined by two-level or correlation-based
branch history
• Correlation-based
—In loop-closing branches, history is good
predictor
—In more complex structures, branch direction
correlates with that of related branches
– Use recent branch history as well
51. Branch Prediction (3)
• Delayed Branch
—Do not take jump until you have to
—Rearrange instructions
55. Intel 80486 Pipelining
• Fetch
— From cache or external memory
— Put in one of two 16-byte prefetch buffers
— Fill buffer with new data as soon as old data consumed
— Average 5 instructions fetched per load
— Independent of other stages to keep buffers full
• Decode stage 1
— Opcode & address-mode info
— At most first 3 bytes of instruction
— Can direct D2 stage to get rest of instruction
• Decode stage 2
— Expand opcode into control signals
— Computation of complex address modes
• Execute
— ALU operations, cache access, register update
• Writeback
— Update registers & flags
— Results sent to cache & bus interface write buffers
60. MMX Register Mapping
• MMX uses several 64 bit data types
• Use 3 bit register address fields
—8 registers
• No MMX specific registers
—Aliasing to lower 64 bits of existing floating
point registers
62. Pentium Interrupt Processing
• Interrupts
—Maskable
—Nonmaskable
• Exceptions
—Processor detected
—Programmed
• Interrupt vector table
—Each interrupt type assigned a number
—Index to vector table
—256 * 32 bit interrupt vectors
• 5 priority classes
63. ARM Attributes
• RISC
• Moderate array of uniform registers
—More than most CISC, less than many RISC
• Load/store model
—Operations perform on operands in registers only
• Uniform fixed-length instruction
—32 bits standard set 16 bits Thumb
• Shift or rotation can preprocess source registers
—Separate ALU and shifter units
• Small number of addressing modes
—All load/store addressees from registers and instruction
fields
—No indirect or indexed addressing involving values in
memory
• Auto-increment and auto-decrement addressing
—Improve loops
• Conditional execution of instructions minimizes
conditional branches
65. ARM Processor Organization
• Many variations depending on ARM version
• Data exchanged between processor and memory
through data bus
• Data item (load/store) or instruction (fetch)
• Instructions go through decoder before execution
• Pipeline and control signal generation in control
unit
• Data goes to register file
—Set of 32 bit registers
—Byte & halfword twos complement data sign extended
• Typically two source and one result register
• Rotation or shift before ALU
66. ARM Processor Modes
• User
• Privileged
—6 modes
– OS can tailor systems software use
– Some registers dedicated to each privileged mode
– Swifter context changes
• Exception
—5 of privileged modes
—Entered on given exceptions
—Substitute some registers for user registers
– Avoid corruption
67. Privileged Modes
• System Mode
— Not exception
— Uses same registers as User mode
— Can be interrupted by…
• Supervisor mode
— OS
— Software interrupt usedd to invoke operating system services
• Abort mode
— memory faults
• Undefined mode
— Attempt instruction that is not supported by integer core
coprocessors
• Fast interrupt mode
— Interrupt signal from designated fast interrupt source
— Fast interrupt cannot be interrupted
— May interrupt normal interrupt
• Interrupt mode
• Interrupt signal from any other interrupt source
69. ARM Register Organization
• 37 x 32-bit registers
• 31 general-purpose registers
—Some have special purposes
—E.g. program counters
• Six program status registers
• Registers in partially overlapping banks
—Processor mode determines bank
• 16 numbered registers and one or two
program status registers visible
70. General Register Usage
• R13 normally stack pointer (SP)
—Each exception mode has its own R13
• R14 link register (LR)
—Subroutine and exception mode return
address
• R15 program counter
71. CPSR
• CPSR process status register
—Exception modes have dedicated SPSR
• 16 msb are user flags
—Condition codes (N,Z,C,V)
—Q – overflow or saturation in some SMID
instructions
—J – Jazelle (8 bit) instructions
—GEE[3:0] SMID use [19:16] as greater than or
equal flag
• 16 lsb system flags for privilege modes
—E – endian
—Interrupt disable
—T – Normal or Thumb instruction
—Mode
73. ARM Interrupt (Exception) Processing
• More than one exception allowed
• Seven types
• Execution forced from exception vectors
• Multiple exceptions handled in priority
order
• Processor halts execution after current
instruction
• Processor state preserved in SPSR for
exception
—Address of instruction about to execute put in
link register
—Return by moving SPSR to CPSR and R14 to