The document summarizes information about the plant Catharanthus roseus, commonly known as Vinca or Periwinkle. It is native to Madagascar but cultivated in other tropical and subtropical regions. The plant contains important anticancer alkaloids vinblastine and vincristine in its leaves and roots. Vinblastine is used to treat Hodgkin's disease while vincristine is used for childhood leukemia. The flowers may also be used as a gentle laxative or gargle.
This document provides an overview of pharmacognosy, including its definition, historical development, and modern applications. It discusses how pharmacognosy is the study of crude drugs from natural sources like plants, animals, and minerals. Over time, the field has advanced from early empirical use of natural remedies to the systematic isolation and characterization of active pharmaceutical ingredients using analytical techniques. Pharmacognosy continues to contribute to drug discovery and development through the study of natural products.
This document provides information about various enzymes. It begins with an introduction to enzymes, noting that they are proteins that act as catalysts and play a vital role in cellular functions and organism activities. It then discusses the properties, chemical nature, and classifications of enzymes. Specific enzymes discussed in more detail include diastase, pepsin, and trypsin. Their sources, preparations, descriptions, uses, and identification tests are outlined.
The document discusses Indian gum, also known as gum acacia or gum arabic. It is a dried exudate obtained from the stems and branches of the Acacia arabica tree. Chemically, it is a complex mixture of glycoproteins and polysaccharides. It is collected by making cuts in the bark of the tree, then dried and processed. Gum acacia is used extensively in pharmaceuticals as an emulsifier, thickening agent, and tablet binder. It is also used in food products and cosmetics for its adhesive and thickening properties.
This practical manual is prepared for academic purpose only and contains introduction and detail methodology regarding determination of numbers of starch grains by Lycopodium spore method, along with dummy readings to facilitate understanding of calculations thereof.
Role of Pharmacognosy in various systems of medicineRamaiah Maddi
Role of Pharmacognosy in Allopathy (Modern medicine)
Role of Pharmacognosy in Ayurveda
Role of Pharmacognosy in Unani System of Medicine
Role of Pharmacognosy in Siddha System of Medicine
Role of Pharmacognosy in Homeopathy
Role of Pharmacognosy in Chinese Medicine System
This document provides an introduction to the subject of pharmacognosy. It defines pharmacognosy as the study of crude drugs from plant, animal, and marine sources. The document outlines the history and development of pharmacognosy over time with contributions from scientists since ancient times. It describes the scope of pharmacognosy, including understanding drug actions, formulating products, isolating phytochemicals, and more. The types of crude drugs are categorized as organized (containing tissues) or unorganized. Sources of crude drugs are discussed, including various plant parts, animals, marine organisms, and tissue culture techniques.
The document summarizes information about the plant Catharanthus roseus, commonly known as Vinca or Periwinkle. It is native to Madagascar but cultivated in other tropical and subtropical regions. The plant contains important anticancer alkaloids vinblastine and vincristine in its leaves and roots. Vinblastine is used to treat Hodgkin's disease while vincristine is used for childhood leukemia. The flowers may also be used as a gentle laxative or gargle.
This document provides an overview of pharmacognosy, including its definition, historical development, and modern applications. It discusses how pharmacognosy is the study of crude drugs from natural sources like plants, animals, and minerals. Over time, the field has advanced from early empirical use of natural remedies to the systematic isolation and characterization of active pharmaceutical ingredients using analytical techniques. Pharmacognosy continues to contribute to drug discovery and development through the study of natural products.
This document provides information about various enzymes. It begins with an introduction to enzymes, noting that they are proteins that act as catalysts and play a vital role in cellular functions and organism activities. It then discusses the properties, chemical nature, and classifications of enzymes. Specific enzymes discussed in more detail include diastase, pepsin, and trypsin. Their sources, preparations, descriptions, uses, and identification tests are outlined.
The document discusses Indian gum, also known as gum acacia or gum arabic. It is a dried exudate obtained from the stems and branches of the Acacia arabica tree. Chemically, it is a complex mixture of glycoproteins and polysaccharides. It is collected by making cuts in the bark of the tree, then dried and processed. Gum acacia is used extensively in pharmaceuticals as an emulsifier, thickening agent, and tablet binder. It is also used in food products and cosmetics for its adhesive and thickening properties.
This practical manual is prepared for academic purpose only and contains introduction and detail methodology regarding determination of numbers of starch grains by Lycopodium spore method, along with dummy readings to facilitate understanding of calculations thereof.
Role of Pharmacognosy in various systems of medicineRamaiah Maddi
Role of Pharmacognosy in Allopathy (Modern medicine)
Role of Pharmacognosy in Ayurveda
Role of Pharmacognosy in Unani System of Medicine
Role of Pharmacognosy in Siddha System of Medicine
Role of Pharmacognosy in Homeopathy
Role of Pharmacognosy in Chinese Medicine System
This document provides an introduction to the subject of pharmacognosy. It defines pharmacognosy as the study of crude drugs from plant, animal, and marine sources. The document outlines the history and development of pharmacognosy over time with contributions from scientists since ancient times. It describes the scope of pharmacognosy, including understanding drug actions, formulating products, isolating phytochemicals, and more. The types of crude drugs are categorized as organized (containing tissues) or unorganized. Sources of crude drugs are discussed, including various plant parts, animals, marine organisms, and tissue culture techniques.
Glycosides are organic natural compounds found in many plants and some animals. They contain a sugar (glycone) moiety and a non-sugar (aglycone or genin) moiety linked by a glycosidic bond. The sugar is usually beta-D-glucose but can also be galactose, mannose, rhamnose, or digitoxose. Glycosides have therapeutic effects due to the aglycone part, and the sugar moiety facilitates absorption and transport of the aglycone. Glycosides are hydrolyzed to release the active aglycone. They are used traditionally and in modern medicines for various purposes such as cardiac effects, laxatives, analgesics, and
Phytosomes are advanced herbal formulations containing bioactive plant constituents bound to phospholipids. This improves absorption and bioavailability compared to conventional herbal extracts. Phytosomes are prepared by reacting phytoconstituents like flavonoids with phosphatidylcholine in solvent to form a complex. They have advantages like reduced dose requirements and synergistic effects when combined with hepatoprotective substances. Common phytosome applications include milk thistle for liver protection, grape seed for antioxidants, green tea for various health benefits, and curcumin for its anti-inflammatory properties.
Roll of pharmacognosy in traditional system of medicineMegha Shah
This document discusses the role of pharmacognosy in various traditional medicine systems including Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and allopathy. It provides an overview of each system and explains how pharmacognosy plays an important role in the development and standardization of herbal medicines used in the formulations of each traditional system. Pharmacognosy is involved in the identification, authentication, and quality control of medicinal plants used as the basis for many medicines within these traditional systems.
This document provides information about various plant-based fibers including cotton, jute, and hemp. It discusses the biological source, chemical composition, uses, and preparation processes for each fiber. Cotton fibers come from the seeds of cotton plants and are mainly used for absorbent cotton, surgical dressings, and filtering. The document outlines the ginning and scouring processes used to prepare cotton fibers. Jute fibers come from the stems of jute plants and are composed primarily of cellulose. They are used for wrapping bales. The retting process is described for extracting jute fibers from the stems. Identification tests are also listed to distinguish between different types of fibers.
Evaluation of drug means confirmation of its identity and determination of its quality and purity and detection of nature of adulteration.Evaluation of herbal drug is an important tool in the formulation of high quality herbal products. Quality of herb is
depends upon on many factors like cultivation, collection, drying, storage, processing for market etc. Now a day’s
substitution and adulteration of herb is very common due to scarcity of drug and its high price prevailing in the
market. Owing to medicinal properties attributed to an herb, it is necessary to maintain its quality and purity in the
commercial market. A present overview covering various tool like morphological, microscopical, physical, chemical
and biological employed for evaluation of herbal drugs.
This document discusses herbal formulations, including types such as herbal syrups, herbal mixtures, and tablets. It provides details on preparing herbal syrups, including using equal proportions of herbal infusions/decoctions and honey or sugar. Advantages of herbal syrups include masking bad tastes and soothing irritated tissues. The document also discusses novel herbal dosage forms like phytosomes, which are complexes of herbal extracts and phospholipids that can enhance absorption and bioavailability. Methods of preparing phytosomes and evaluating their properties and advantages are provided.
Gelatin is a protein extracted from animal collagen through partial hydrolysis. It is insoluble in cold water but soluble in hot water, where it forms a jelly on cooling. Gelatin is used to make hard and soft capsules, as well as suppositories, pastes and pastilles. It is also used as an absorbable sponge to control bleeding. Gelatin's properties are determined by its bloom strength, which measures its ability to form a gel.
method to separate compounds based on their relative solubilities in two different immiscible liquids, usually water and an organic solvent. It is an extraction of a substance from one liquid into another liquid phase.
Leaf constants practical manual 2021- By Dr. Preeti VermaPreeti Verma
This document provides instructions for determining leaf constants of Datura and Vinca leaves through quantitative microscopy. It describes how to calculate the vein islet number and vein termination number of Datura leaves, as well as the stomatal number and stomatal index of the lower epidermis of Vinca leaves. The procedures involve surface preparation of leaf pieces, examination under the microscope using a camera lucida to count structural features within delineated areas, and calculations to determine the constants based on the counts within a 1 mm2 area.
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Absorption of drugs from non per os extravascular administrationSuvarta Maru
Non-oral routes of drug administration provide advantages over oral routes by bypassing the gastrointestinal tract and avoiding first-pass metabolism. Common non-oral routes discussed include buccal/sublingual, rectal, topical, intramuscular, subcutaneous, pulmonary, intranasal, intraocular, and vaginal administration. Absorption through these routes occurs primarily via passive diffusion, carrier-mediated transport, or pore transport depending on the drug properties and administration site. Non-oral routes allow for rapid drug absorption, higher bioavailability compared to oral routes, and targeted delivery for local or systemic effects.
Unit II Introduction to secondary metabolite
Phenylpropanoids and Flavonoids: Lignans, Tea, Ruta
For video lecture join to youtube channel snehal chakorkar
This document defines carbohydrates and provides examples of different types of carbohydrates like monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It then discusses several carbohydrate-containing substances like agar, acacia, honey, and tragacanth. For each substance, it describes the biological source, chemical constituents, identification tests, and uses. Key points covered include the classification of carbohydrates, examples of monosaccharides and polysaccharides, and the components and uses of substances like agar, acacia gum, honey, and tragacanth.
This document provides information about the nutraceutical properties of various herbs and foods. It discusses the health benefits of nutraceuticals in treating diseases like diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and gastrointestinal issues. Key points covered include the classification of nutraceuticals, probiotics and prebiotics, polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, and the traditional and global market of nutraceuticals. Specific herbs discussed include alfalfa, chicory, ginger, fenugreek, garlic, and honey.
Ephedra contains amino alkaloids such as ephedrine, nor-ephedrine, and pseudo-ephedrine. It grows mainly in China, Pakistan, India, Australia, and parts of Europe at altitudes between 2500-3000m with annual rainfall under 50cm. The stems are collected after 4 years, dried, and stored away from light. Ephedra acts as a bronchodilator for treating asthma and hay fever due to its sympathomimetic effects.
This document discusses different types of herbal materials, preparations, products, and their definitions. It defines herbal materials as herbs, juices, gums, oils, essential oils, resins, and dried powders. Herbal preparations are made from extracted, fractionated, purified or concentrated herbal materials and can include decoctions or tinctures. Finished herbal products contain one or more herbal preparations from single or multiple plants, and may include excipients. Herbal medicine is defined as using plants to prevent or treat illness or for health, such as using ginger tincture for an upset stomach. Herbal medicinal products contain herbal substances or preparations as the only active ingredient.
Herbs as raw materials.ppt by Dr.U.Srinivasa, Professor and Head, Srinivas Co...SrinivasUmmanabad
This document discusses herbs and herbal materials used as raw materials in herbal medicine. It defines what an herb is from a pharmacological perspective and distinguishes medicinal herbs from botanical terms. The document outlines the key differences between herbal and conventional medicines. It also describes the various types of herbal materials, preparations, and finished products that can be made from herbs. Finally, it discusses the important steps involved in the selection, identification, processing and production of herbal raw materials.
This document discusses the science of pharmacy and pharmacognosy. It defines pharmacy as dealing with the procurement, testing, storage, and conversion of drugs into suitable forms. Pharmacognosy is defined as the study of drugs from biological origins, including plants, animals, and minerals. The document outlines the scope of pharmacognosy, including isolation of phytochemicals, structure-activity relationships, cultivation of medicinal plants, and development of herbal formulations. Physical and chemical parameters used to evaluate crude drugs are also summarized, such as ash values, swelling factor, and extractive values.
Glycosides are organic natural compounds found in many plants and some animals. They contain a sugar (glycone) moiety and a non-sugar (aglycone or genin) moiety linked by a glycosidic bond. The sugar is usually beta-D-glucose but can also be galactose, mannose, rhamnose, or digitoxose. Glycosides have therapeutic effects due to the aglycone part, and the sugar moiety facilitates absorption and transport of the aglycone. Glycosides are hydrolyzed to release the active aglycone. They are used traditionally and in modern medicines for various purposes such as cardiac effects, laxatives, analgesics, and
Phytosomes are advanced herbal formulations containing bioactive plant constituents bound to phospholipids. This improves absorption and bioavailability compared to conventional herbal extracts. Phytosomes are prepared by reacting phytoconstituents like flavonoids with phosphatidylcholine in solvent to form a complex. They have advantages like reduced dose requirements and synergistic effects when combined with hepatoprotective substances. Common phytosome applications include milk thistle for liver protection, grape seed for antioxidants, green tea for various health benefits, and curcumin for its anti-inflammatory properties.
Roll of pharmacognosy in traditional system of medicineMegha Shah
This document discusses the role of pharmacognosy in various traditional medicine systems including Ayurveda, Siddha, Unani, and allopathy. It provides an overview of each system and explains how pharmacognosy plays an important role in the development and standardization of herbal medicines used in the formulations of each traditional system. Pharmacognosy is involved in the identification, authentication, and quality control of medicinal plants used as the basis for many medicines within these traditional systems.
This document provides information about various plant-based fibers including cotton, jute, and hemp. It discusses the biological source, chemical composition, uses, and preparation processes for each fiber. Cotton fibers come from the seeds of cotton plants and are mainly used for absorbent cotton, surgical dressings, and filtering. The document outlines the ginning and scouring processes used to prepare cotton fibers. Jute fibers come from the stems of jute plants and are composed primarily of cellulose. They are used for wrapping bales. The retting process is described for extracting jute fibers from the stems. Identification tests are also listed to distinguish between different types of fibers.
Evaluation of drug means confirmation of its identity and determination of its quality and purity and detection of nature of adulteration.Evaluation of herbal drug is an important tool in the formulation of high quality herbal products. Quality of herb is
depends upon on many factors like cultivation, collection, drying, storage, processing for market etc. Now a day’s
substitution and adulteration of herb is very common due to scarcity of drug and its high price prevailing in the
market. Owing to medicinal properties attributed to an herb, it is necessary to maintain its quality and purity in the
commercial market. A present overview covering various tool like morphological, microscopical, physical, chemical
and biological employed for evaluation of herbal drugs.
This document discusses herbal formulations, including types such as herbal syrups, herbal mixtures, and tablets. It provides details on preparing herbal syrups, including using equal proportions of herbal infusions/decoctions and honey or sugar. Advantages of herbal syrups include masking bad tastes and soothing irritated tissues. The document also discusses novel herbal dosage forms like phytosomes, which are complexes of herbal extracts and phospholipids that can enhance absorption and bioavailability. Methods of preparing phytosomes and evaluating their properties and advantages are provided.
Gelatin is a protein extracted from animal collagen through partial hydrolysis. It is insoluble in cold water but soluble in hot water, where it forms a jelly on cooling. Gelatin is used to make hard and soft capsules, as well as suppositories, pastes and pastilles. It is also used as an absorbable sponge to control bleeding. Gelatin's properties are determined by its bloom strength, which measures its ability to form a gel.
method to separate compounds based on their relative solubilities in two different immiscible liquids, usually water and an organic solvent. It is an extraction of a substance from one liquid into another liquid phase.
Leaf constants practical manual 2021- By Dr. Preeti VermaPreeti Verma
This document provides instructions for determining leaf constants of Datura and Vinca leaves through quantitative microscopy. It describes how to calculate the vein islet number and vein termination number of Datura leaves, as well as the stomatal number and stomatal index of the lower epidermis of Vinca leaves. The procedures involve surface preparation of leaf pieces, examination under the microscope using a camera lucida to count structural features within delineated areas, and calculations to determine the constants based on the counts within a 1 mm2 area.
GPAT
Niper &
other pharma competative exams...
For more posts, follow us on .... be
@pharmahelpers
@pharmahelpers
@pharmahelpers
Also follow us on...
Facebook @ Pharma Helpers
Whatsapp @ 8421773854 OR https://chat.whatsapp.com/FFVRcxiiqC91PvnEvmK2F1
Instagram @ https://www.instagram.com/p/COM-VYqJ3Xo/?igshid=1ac01ibq2sa2k
Absorption of drugs from non per os extravascular administrationSuvarta Maru
Non-oral routes of drug administration provide advantages over oral routes by bypassing the gastrointestinal tract and avoiding first-pass metabolism. Common non-oral routes discussed include buccal/sublingual, rectal, topical, intramuscular, subcutaneous, pulmonary, intranasal, intraocular, and vaginal administration. Absorption through these routes occurs primarily via passive diffusion, carrier-mediated transport, or pore transport depending on the drug properties and administration site. Non-oral routes allow for rapid drug absorption, higher bioavailability compared to oral routes, and targeted delivery for local or systemic effects.
Unit II Introduction to secondary metabolite
Phenylpropanoids and Flavonoids: Lignans, Tea, Ruta
For video lecture join to youtube channel snehal chakorkar
This document defines carbohydrates and provides examples of different types of carbohydrates like monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. It then discusses several carbohydrate-containing substances like agar, acacia, honey, and tragacanth. For each substance, it describes the biological source, chemical constituents, identification tests, and uses. Key points covered include the classification of carbohydrates, examples of monosaccharides and polysaccharides, and the components and uses of substances like agar, acacia gum, honey, and tragacanth.
This document provides information about the nutraceutical properties of various herbs and foods. It discusses the health benefits of nutraceuticals in treating diseases like diabetes, cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and gastrointestinal issues. Key points covered include the classification of nutraceuticals, probiotics and prebiotics, polyunsaturated fatty acids, vitamins, and the traditional and global market of nutraceuticals. Specific herbs discussed include alfalfa, chicory, ginger, fenugreek, garlic, and honey.
Ephedra contains amino alkaloids such as ephedrine, nor-ephedrine, and pseudo-ephedrine. It grows mainly in China, Pakistan, India, Australia, and parts of Europe at altitudes between 2500-3000m with annual rainfall under 50cm. The stems are collected after 4 years, dried, and stored away from light. Ephedra acts as a bronchodilator for treating asthma and hay fever due to its sympathomimetic effects.
This document discusses different types of herbal materials, preparations, products, and their definitions. It defines herbal materials as herbs, juices, gums, oils, essential oils, resins, and dried powders. Herbal preparations are made from extracted, fractionated, purified or concentrated herbal materials and can include decoctions or tinctures. Finished herbal products contain one or more herbal preparations from single or multiple plants, and may include excipients. Herbal medicine is defined as using plants to prevent or treat illness or for health, such as using ginger tincture for an upset stomach. Herbal medicinal products contain herbal substances or preparations as the only active ingredient.
Herbs as raw materials.ppt by Dr.U.Srinivasa, Professor and Head, Srinivas Co...SrinivasUmmanabad
This document discusses herbs and herbal materials used as raw materials in herbal medicine. It defines what an herb is from a pharmacological perspective and distinguishes medicinal herbs from botanical terms. The document outlines the key differences between herbal and conventional medicines. It also describes the various types of herbal materials, preparations, and finished products that can be made from herbs. Finally, it discusses the important steps involved in the selection, identification, processing and production of herbal raw materials.
This document discusses the science of pharmacy and pharmacognosy. It defines pharmacy as dealing with the procurement, testing, storage, and conversion of drugs into suitable forms. Pharmacognosy is defined as the study of drugs from biological origins, including plants, animals, and minerals. The document outlines the scope of pharmacognosy, including isolation of phytochemicals, structure-activity relationships, cultivation of medicinal plants, and development of herbal formulations. Physical and chemical parameters used to evaluate crude drugs are also summarized, such as ash values, swelling factor, and extractive values.
The document discusses various pharmaceutical substances derived from plants. It begins by introducing medicinal plants' role in human culture and that early medicines were primarily plant-derived. It then covers major chemical families found in medicinal plants - alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenes, etc. Specific examples of important alkaloids are provided, such as morphine, atropine, cocaine. The document also discusses other chemical groups like xanthines, terpenes and provides examples of medically useful substances within each group.
Flavonoids are a group of plant secondary metabolites called phenolics. They contain an aromatic ring structure with one or more hydroxyl groups attached. There are over 3000 known flavonoids found throughout plants. Flavonoids may function as antioxidants, pigments, and have potential health benefits for humans. Common tests used to identify flavonoids include the Shinoda test and ferric chloride test.
The document summarizes novel medicinal agents that can be derived from marine sources. It discusses how marine organisms such as plants, animals, and microbes produce secondary metabolites for defense and survival purposes. Some of these compounds have potential as pharmaceuticals. Two marine-derived drugs that are currently used are Ara-C and Ara-A, which are nucleosides derived from a marine sponge that are used to treat cancer and viral infections respectively. Many other marine organisms have been found to contain bioactive molecules with therapeutic properties such as antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, antivirals, and more.
The document summarizes novel medicinal agents that can be derived from marine sources. It discusses how marine organisms such as plants, animals, and microbes produce secondary metabolites for defense and survival purposes. Some of these compounds have potential as pharmaceuticals. Two approved drugs on the market derived from marine sources are the anticancer drug Ara-C from a marine sponge, and the antiviral drug Ara-A. The document outlines various types of bioactive molecules isolated from marine sources that have therapeutic properties, including antibiotics, anti-inflammatories, cardiovascular actives, cytotoxic anticancer compounds, and more. Overall, the ocean represents a relatively untapped source of biodiversity for discovering new drugs.
ABSTRACT- Background: Spinacia oleracea L. commonly known as palak is an edible flowering plant belongs to Amaranthaceae family. The plants exhibit its curative activity against several human diseases because of the presence of biological tannins and phenolic active phytochemicals such as alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, glycosides, terpenoids. It is used in the treatment of difficulty in breathing, inflammation of liver and lungs and leucorrhoea, useful in urinary concretion, inflammation of the lungs, sore throat, and pain in joints. Materials and Methods: Spinacia oleracea L. was collected from local market Jhansi in the month of January 2017. Aqueous and methanolic extraction of Spinacia oleracea L. and phytochemical screening of the extracts was done for Saponins, Reducing sugar, Cardiac glycosides, Protein and Amino acid, Glycosides, Alkaloids, Tannins, Flavonoids, Terpenoids, and Steroids. Results: Phytochemical analysis of leaves of S. oleracea had most of the important phytochemicals like Alkaloids, Tannins, Glycosides, Terpenoids, and Flavonoids etc. In which, the aqueous extract of S. oleracea showed (in most of the test) positive result for Alkaloids, Phenols, Flavanoids, Saponins, Terpenoids, Reducing sugar, Protein, and Amino acid and showed a negative result for Carbohydrate, Glycosides, and Cardiac glycosides. The methanolic extract of the plant leaves revealed the presence of (in most of the test) Alkaloids, Tannins & Phenolic compounds, Flavanoids, Saponins, Terpenoids and Steroids and negative results for the rest. Conclusions: The phytochemical analysis of S. oleraceae revealed the presence of phytochemicals such as, Tannins, Flavonoids, Alkaloids, Saponins, and Terpenoids etc. in the different extracts. By the presence of these phytochemicals, we were suggested that S. oleracea is a good nutrient rich leafy vegetable that can be used as a therapeutic and curative medicine for many oxidative stress- induced diseases. Key-words- Phytochemical analysis, Spinacia oleracea, Flavonoids, Alkaloids, Terpenoids, Methanolic extract
The document discusses the chemistry and biosynthesis of various glycosides. It begins by defining glycosides as molecules composed of a sugar molecule (glycone) linked to a non-sugar molecule (aglycone). It then discusses the chemistry and sources of several classes of glycosides - cardiac glycosides, sennosides, steroidal saponin glycosides like diosgenin, hecogenin and sarsapogenin. The biosynthesis of these glycosides involves the transfer of a sugar molecule from a UDP-sugar to the aglycone, catalyzed by glycosyltransferases. Key cardiac glycosides discussed are digoxin and digitoxin. Sennosides are anthraquinone glycos
Red sage a Chinese Plant: A Review of Phytochemical and Pharmacological StudiesBRNSS Publication Hub
Salvia splendens Linn. (Family: Lamiaceae), commonly known “Red sage” or “Scarlet sage,” has been used in the different traditional system of medicines for various ailments since ancient times. S. splendens grows throughout in Brazil and many other Asian countries such as India and China. This article aims to provide a comprehensive review of the phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of S. splendens. In traditional medicine, it has been used in the treatment of dressing of wounds and also applied to itchy skin by the leaves of the plant, roots are mainly used for cold and cough, and seeds are mainly used for emetic, dysentery, hemorrhoids, and colic disorders. It also used for the treatment of diabetes, hematemesis, leukoderma, pruritis, intestinal disorder and as antipyretics, analgesic, and laxative. The fruits, stem roots, and leaves of this plant contain a variety of biologically active compounds such as anthraquinones, flavonoids, flavon-3-ol derivatives, alkaloid, glycosides, tannin, saponin, terpenoids, reducing sugar, and steroids those have various medicinal properties. The leaves stem and roots extract shows various activities such as antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antidiabetic, hypolipidemic, hepatoprotective, antimicrobial, antitumor, and antiulcer.
Phytochemical Screening, Assessment of Mineral Content and Total Flavonoid Co...ijtsrd
In this research work, the Dalbergia Lanceolaria L., Myanmar name Thit pagan was selected to qualify and quantify the flavonoids present in it. The stem bark of Thit pagan was collected from Minbu Township, Magway Region, Myanmar. Firstly, the preliminary phytochemical test of this selected plant was carried out which gave positive for glycoside, flavonoid, polyphenol phenolic, sugar, saponin, tannin, terpene, alkaloid, and lipophenol test. Furthermore, the mineral contents of selected sample were measured by EDXRF method. Moreover, the total flavonoids of selected sample were extracted with 95 EtOH. This extract was checked for qualitative test of flavonoids. It responds positive for Ferric Chloride test, Shinoda's test and Lead Acetate test respectively. In addition, total flavonoid content of Dalbergia Lanceolaria L. was evaluated by the aluminum chloride AlCl3 method using UV Visible spectrophotometer UV 1800, SHIMADZU, UV spectrophotometer at 510 nm. The total flavonoid content of this selected sample was determined as 41.17 0.11 mg quercetin equivalent QE per gram dry weight. Arnt Win | Aye Mon Thida Nyo | Swe Swe Mon | Sabai Phyu "Phytochemical Screening, Assessment of Mineral Content and Total Flavonoid Content of Stem Bark of Dalbergia Lanceolaria L." Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-3 | Issue-5 , August 2019, URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd26776.pdfPaper URL: https://www.ijtsrd.com/chemistry/other/26776/phytochemical-screening-assessment-of-mineral-content-and-total-flavonoid-content-of-stem-bark-of-dalbergia-lanceolaria-l/arnt-win
Estimation of flavonoid lantana camara linn verbenaceaepharmaindexing
This document summarizes a study that estimated the flavonoid, phenolic content, and free radical scavenging activity of fresh unripe fruits of Lantana camara using different extraction methods. Total phenolic content and total flavonoid content were highest in extracts produced using microwave extraction. Microwave extraction also produced the highest yield of extract. All extracts showed free radical scavenging activity, with microwave extracts again showing the most potent activity. The study concluded the fresh unripe fruits contain antioxidant compounds that may be beneficial for treating diseases related to oxidative stress.
Secondary metabolite part 2 by pooja khanparaPOOJA KHANPARA
This document provides information about secondary metabolites found in plants, with a focus on cardiac glycosides. It discusses the structural features and chemical properties of cardiac glycosides like digitalis and bufadienolides. Methods for identifying these compounds include Legal's test, Baljet test, and xanthydrol test. Specific cardiac glycoside-containing plants are also summarized, such as Digitalis lanata and Dioscorea deltoidea. The document concludes with details about the morphology, cultivation, and chemical constituents of liquorice root.
Isolation and characterization of Hesperidin nanoparticles from Citrus sinens...VikhyathiChalla
Major project research - presentation
Gives a brief understanding about our research work on isolating, characterizing and developing nanoparticles of a phytochemical called Hesperidin from Blood Orange (Citrus sinensis) peel extract which can be used as an effective inhibitor of binding of ACE 2 receptor with SARS CoV 2 and hence manage and prevent COVID-19 infection.
The document discusses several plants and plant products used as medicines, including their biological sources, chemical constituents, properties, uses, and commercial applications. It provides details on alkaloids, describing their physical and chemical properties as well as classification. Examples of important alkaloid-containing plants discussed include vinca, rauwolfia, belladonna, opium, and tea.
The document discusses several plants and plant products used as medicines, including their biological sources, chemical constituents, properties, uses, and commercial applications. It provides details on alkaloids, describing their physical and chemical properties as well as classes and tests. Examples of important alkaloid-containing plants are discussed in depth, such as vinca, rauwolfia, belladonna, opium, and tea.
HydroCurcTM is a product containing curcuminoids, which are chemical compounds derived from turmeric. Curcuminoids such as curcumin are known to have various biological activities including antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Research has shown curcuminoids may help reduce the risk of diseases like cancer and cardiovascular disease. However, curcumin itself has poor bioavailability and stability, limiting its potential medical uses. New formulations are being developed to improve the bioavailability of curcuminoids.
This document summarizes a study that investigated the total phenol content, total flavonoid content, and antioxidant properties of ethanolic and aqueous extracts of the whole plant of Euphorbia hirta. The researchers found that the ethanolic extract had higher total phenol and flavonoid content than the aqueous extract. Various antioxidant assays also demonstrated that the ethanolic extract had stronger antioxidant activity, with lower IC50 values. There was a direct correlation observed between the total phenol content and antioxidant activity of the extracts. The results indicate that the whole plant of E. hirta possesses antioxidant properties, and the ethanolic extract has greater antioxidant capacity than the aqueous extract.
The importance of medicinal plants in the treatment of a variety of human ailments man has been dependent on the higher plants as a source of food and medicine.
Estimation of Bioactive Compound of Catharanthus Roseus Leaf Extract by Phyto...ijtsrd
Plant derived compounds have played a vital role in the development of several chemotherapeutic agents. Catharanthus roseus is an important medicinal plant of the apocynaceae family. The leaf extract of Catharanthus roseus have many biological activities such as antibacterial, antioxidant and antidiabetes. The present study was aimed to carry out the phytochemical analysis and the GC-MS analyses of Cathranthus roseus leaf extract ensure biological activity in the presence bioactive compounds. The leaves designated to the presence of secondary metabolites (proteins, steroids, tannins,glycosides, reducing sugar, carbohydrates,saponins, sterols, terpenoids, acidic compounds, cardiac glycosides, phenols, alkaloids,flavonoids). In the GC-MS analysis the Cathranthus roseus extract result shows the presence of bioactive compounds which revealed a broad spectrum of many medicinal property and antioxidant activity were identified. This study is helped to identify bioactive compound formula and structure which can be used as pharmaceutical industries for drug discovery. S. Nathiya | N. Shaishta Jabeen | L. Jagapriya | B. Senthilkumar | K. Devi"Estimation of Bioactive Compound of Catharanthus Roseus Leaf Extract by Phytochemical Screening and GC-MS Analysis" Published in International Journal of Trend in Scientific Research and Development (ijtsrd), ISSN: 2456-6470, Volume-2 | Issue-1 , December 2017, URL: http://www.ijtsrd.com/papers/ijtsrd5926.pdf http://www.ijtsrd.com/biological-science/zoology/5926/estimation-of-bioactive-compound-of-catharanthus-roseus-leaf-extract-by-phytochemical-screening-and-gc-ms-analysis/s-nathiya
This document discusses various neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, and receptors in the nervous system. It describes:
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3) Other substances that modulate neurotransmission like neurotrophic factors, neuromodulators, and neuromediators.
Stability Testing During Product DevelopmentAl Riyad Hasan
Stability Testing During Product Development:
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Presentation and recording of results
Stability data handling and estimation of shelf life
Package Labelling
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. Introduction to Pharmacology Course Title: Pharmacology I Course No.: PHAR 2113 Prepared by: Biswajit Biswas Reference: Goodman & Gilman’s Manual of Pharmacology and Therapeutics
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3. Historic development of pharmacology Worlds oldest pharmacology - from India and China Materia medica (2735 B.C.) by Pan Tsao- contained mainly Plant and metal with few animal products Ayurveda - described by Charaka accordig to Rigveda (3000 B.C.) - includes 300 vegetable drugs , classified into 50 groups according to their effects on symptoms. Papyrus (1500 B.C.) discovered by Eber -700 drugs Modern medicine (from 450 B.C.) by Hippocrates- concept of disease as a pathologic process and organize pharmacology on the basis of observation, analysis and deduction.- use simple and efficacious drugs.
4. Allopathay (James gregory, 1753-1821) -treatment without any rational basis- use symptomatic treatment with obnoxious remedis. Homeopathy (Hanneman, 19th century)-
This document provides an overview of phytochemistry and plant drugs. It discusses several plant constituents including glycosides, carbohydrates, tannins, lipids, resins, balsams, volatile oils, and alkaloids. For each constituent, examples of plant sources are given and potential uses are described. The document also classifies different types of alkaloids based on their ring structures and provides examples of plants containing various alkaloid types.
Osvaldo Bernardo Muchanga-GASTROINTESTINAL INFECTIONS AND GASTRITIS-2024.pdfOsvaldo Bernardo Muchanga
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Travel vaccination in Manchester offers comprehensive immunization services for individuals planning international trips. Expert healthcare providers administer vaccines tailored to your destination, ensuring you stay protected against various diseases. Conveniently located clinics and flexible appointment options make it easy to get the necessary shots before your journey. Stay healthy and travel with confidence by getting vaccinated in Manchester. Visit us: www.nxhealthcare.co.uk
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- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/Pt1nA32sdHQ
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/uFdc9F0rlP0
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1. Jashore University of Science and Technology
Department of Pharmacy
Course Title: Pharmacognosy& phytochemistry-III
Course Code: PHAR 2103
An Assignment
On
Phytoconstituents
Submitted by Submitted to
Name: Al Riyad Hasan
Roll: 171026
2nd Year, 1st Semester
Session: 2017-18
Department of Pharmacy
Jashore University of Science and
Technology.
MST. FARZANA SULTANA
Assistant professor
Department of pharmacy
Jashore University of Science &
Technology
Date of Submission: 13-04-2019
3. 1.Forskolin
Synonyms:
Colforsin; Beforsin (obsolete).
Biological Source:
It is obtained from the rootof Coleusforskohlii, Briq. belonging to family Labiatae.
The word coleus has been derived from the Greek coleus equivalent to sheath i.e.;
the natural formation of the fused filaments of the flower which form a staminal
sheath around the style; and the word forskohlii is due to the honour bestowed upon
the Finnish botanist Forskal.
Chemical constituents:
The major constituent which has been reported from Coleus forskohlii are
diterpenoids and essential oils. The tuberous root extracts of C. forskohlii contain
minor diterpenoids i.e., deactylforskolin, 9-deoxyforskolin, 1, 9-deoxyforskolin, 1,
9-dideoxy-7-deacetylforskolin in addition to forskolin (7 β- acetoxy - 8, 13-epoxy-
1α, 6 β, 9 α - trihydroxylabd-14-en-11-one) which is the principle bioactive
constituent of Coleus forskohlii. 1,6-diacetoxy-9-deoxyforskolin, forskolin I,
forskolin J, and forskolin L was isolated and reported from the Chinese species. Two
more diterpenoids i.e., 6-acetyl-1-deoxyforskolin and 6-acetyl-1,9-dideoxy
forskolin were also reported .
4. Uses:
1. It is used in the purification of adenylate cyclase; and as a result it serves as a vital
research tool in cyclic AMP-related investigations.
2. It also finds enormous use in glaucoma and hypertension.
3. It possesses significant therapeutic potential in diseases like: congestive
cardiomyopathy and bronchial asthma wherein the excessive long term usage of b-
adrenergic agonist drugs (e.g.; propranolol, labetalol) ultimately results into the
desensitization of the receptors and a loss of drug efficacy.
2.Sennosides
Synonyms:
Senna glycosides;Sennosides.
Biological Source:
Senna the dried leaflets of Cassia senna L., essentially contains Sennosides A and
B, glucosides of rhein and chrysophanic acid.
Chemical constituents:
The active constituents in both senna leaf and fruit are dianthrone glycosides,
principally sennosides A and B .These compounds areboth di-O-glucosides of rhein
dianthrone (sennidins A and B) and liberate these aglycones on acid hydrolysis;
oxidative hydrolysis (e.g. aqueous HNO3 orH2O2/HCl) produces theanthraquinone
rhein. Following is the structure of Sennosides i.e., anthraquinone glycosides as
observed in senna in almost in equal quantum, and also in the rhubarbs where the
Sennoside A predominates.
5. Chemical Test:
Borntrager test for anthraquinones:
The leaves are boiled with dilute sulphuric acid and filtered. To the filtrate organic
solvent like benzene, ether or chloroform is added and shaken. The organic layer is
separated, and to it add ammonia solution. The ammoniacal layer produces pink to
red colour indicating the presence of anthraquinone glycoside.
Uses:
1. Sennosides are dianthrones.
2. The mostly act as purgative for the lower bowel.
3. Sennosides specifically enhances the peristaltic movement in the colon(i.e., large
intestine).
4. They possess an inherent nauseating taste.
5. Sennosides are distinctly contraindicated for the hemorrhoids or inflammation.
3.Artemisinin
Biological Source :
It is obtained from the leaves and the closed, unexpanded flower heads of
Artemisia annuna Linn., belonging to family Asteraceae. This particular herb has
been used in the Chinese system ofmedicine exclusively for the treatment ofmalaria
since more than one thousand years.
Chemical Structure:
Though the herb was used for its wonderful proven therapeutic efficacy for more
than a decade centuries, but its active principal artemisinin was isolated and
identified in 1972 It has been established experimentally that the presence of an
internal peroxide linkage strategically located in the seven membered ring is an
absolute necessity for it to exert the unique antimalarial property.
6. Modifications in Structure:
On account of the poor water solubility of artemisinin an attempt was made to
improve either its water solubility ir its lipid solubility. In the former instance,
Sodium artesunate i.e., the sodium salt of its hemisuccinate ester was developed;
while in the latter instance, Artemether i.e., its correspondingmethyl ether analogue
was produced. Evidently, sodium artesunate is employed for intraveneous injections
and artemether is used as a potent long acting drug.
Uses:
1. The drug and its derivatives are used as fast acting blood schizontocides in the
control and management of malarial fever caused by plasmodium vivax strain.
2. These drugs are found to be active against both chloroquine resistant and
chloroquine sensitive strains of Plasmodium falciparum.
3. These drugs are found to show extremely encouraging therapeutic effects
specifically in the treatment of Cerebral malaria by virtue of their significant rapid
clearance of the prevailing parasites when compared to either chloroquine orquinine
(synthetic antimalarials).
7. 4.Diosgenin
Biological Source:
It essentially comprises of the dried tubers of Dioscorea delitoidea Wall., Dioscorea
tokora Makino, and Dioscorea composita and other species of Dioscorea belonging
to the family Dioscoreaceae.
Chemical Constituents:
The major active constituent of dioscorea is diosgenin usually present in the range
of 4-6%. Diosgenin is the aglycone of saponoin dioscin.
Besides, the rhizomes contain starch to the extent of 75% but it has no edible utility
because of its bitter taste. They also contain phenolic compounds and an enzyme
sapogenase.
Uses:
1. Dioscorea is mostly employed in the treatment of rheumatic arthritis.
2. Dioscorea has a tremendous potential as a commercial product becauseof its high
content of diosgenin, which in turn is invariably employed as a starting material for
the synthesis of a host of important therapeutic drugs, for instance: sex-hormones,
oral contraceptives and several corticosteroids.
5.Digoxin
Synonyms:
Digitalis, purple foxglove, finger flower, lady’s glove, Foxglove Leaves, Folia
Digitalis.
8. Biological Sources:
Digitalis consists of dried leaves of Digitalis purpurea Linn., belonging to family
Scrophulariaceae.
Chemical constituents:
It’s an important cardiac glycoside. Cardiac glycosides are a class of organic
compounds that increase the output force of the heart and increase its rate of
contractions by acting on the cellular sodium-potassium ATPase pump
Uses:
The foxglove is a widely used herbal medicine with a recognized stimulatory effect
upon the heart. It is also used in allopathic medicine in the treatment of heart
complaints. It has a profound tonic effect upon a diseased heart, enabling the heart
to beat more slowly, powerfully and regularly without requiring more oxygen. At
the same time it stimulates the flow of urine which lowers the volume of the blood
and essens the load on the heart. It has also been employed in the treatment of
internal haemorrhage, in inflammatory diseases, in delirium tremens, in epilepsy, in
acute mania and various other diseases. Digitalis has a cumulative effect in the body,
so the dose has to be decided very carefully.
9. 6.Atropine
Biological Sources:
Atropine is an important alkaloid which is found from different alkaloid containing
plant like Atropa belladonna, Hyoscyamus niger etc.
Chemicalconstituents:
Most alkaloids contain oxygen in their molecular structure; those compounds are
usually colorless crystals at ambient conditions. Oxygen-free alkaloids are
typically volatile, colorless, oily liquids.
Uses:
It is used as antispasmodic, hypnotic and mild diuretic. The leaves have long been
employed as a narcotic medicine. It is similar in action to belladonna and
stramonium, though milder in its effects. The drug combines the therapeutic actions
of its two alkaloids, hyoscyamine and hyoscine. Because of the presence of the
former, it tends to check secretion and to relax spasms of the involuntary muscles,
while through the narcotic effects ofits hyoscine it lessens pain and exercises a slight
somnifacient action. It will also relieve pain in cystitis. It is used to relieve the
griping caused by drastic purgatives, and is a common ingredient of aperient pills,
especially those containing aloes and colocynth.
10. 7.Podophyllotoxin
Biological Sources:
It is an antineoplastic glycoside found in the rhizomes of North American
Podophyllum peltatum L.
Chemicalconstituents:
Podophyllotoxin bears four consecutive chiral centers, labelled C-1 through C-4
.The molecule also contains four almost planar fused rings. The podophyllotoxin
molecule includes a number of oxygen containing functional groups: an alcohol, a
lactone, three methoxy groups, and an acetal.
Chemical Tests:
1. Podophyllotoxin (active lactone) present in the resin when dissolved in alkali,
cooled to 0°C and subsequently treated with an acid it yields an unstable gelatinous
podophyllic acid.
2. The resulting podophyllic acidwhen treated with dehydrating agents easily loses
a molecule of water and gives rise to picropodophyllin (inactive lactone), which
being an isomer of podophyllotoxin.
Uses:
1. It is used as a drastic but slow-acting purgative.
11. 2. Podophyllotoxin possesses anti-tumour (antineoplastic) properties and may be
used in the treatment of cancer.
3. It is invariably prescribed with other purgatives, henbane or belladonna to prevent
gripping in infants.
8.Caffeine
Biological Sources:
Caffeine is found from different plants like tea ( C.sinesis ) , coffee etc.
Chemicalconstituents:
Pure anhydrous caffeine is a bitter-tasting, white, odorless powder with a melting
point of 235–238 °C. Caffeine is moderately soluble in water at room temperature
(2 g/100 mL), but very soluble in boiling water (66 g/100 mL). It is also moderately
soluble in ethanol (1.5 g/100 mL). It is weakly basic (pKa of conjugate acid = ~0.6)
requiring strong acid to protonate it.Caffeine does not contain any stereogenic
centers and hence is classified as an achiral molecule.
The xanthine core of caffeine contains two fused rings, a pyrimidinedione and
imidazole. The pyrimidinedione in turn contains two amide functional groups that
exist predominantly in a zwitterionic resonance the location from which the nitrogen
atoms are double bonded to their adjacent amide carbons atoms. Hence all six ofthe
atoms within the pyrimidinedione ring system are sp2 hybridized and planar.
Therefore, the fused 5,6 ring core of caffeine contains a total of ten pi electrons and
hence according to Hückel's rule is aromatic.
12. Chemical Tests:
1. Caffeine and other purine alkaloids, gives murexide colour reaction. Caffeine is
taken in a petridish to which hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate crystals are
added and heated to dryness. A purple colour is obtained by exposing the residue to
vapours of dilute ammonia. In addition of fixed alkali the purple colour disappears.
2. Caffeine also produces white precipitate with tannic acid solution.
Uses:
Coffee is widely used as a flavoring agent, as in ice cream, pastries, candies and
liquors. Source of caffeine, dried ripe seeds are used as a stimulant, nervine and
diuretic, acting onCNS, kidneys, heart and muscles. Very valuable in cases ofsnake-
bite, helping to ward off the terrible coma. It also exerts a soothing action on the
vascular system, preventing a too rapid wasting of the tissues of the body; these
effects are not only due to the volatile oil but to the caffeine it contains.
9.Taxol
Synonym:
Paclitaxel; Taxol A; NSC – 125973.
Biological Source :
It is obtained from the bark ofthe Pacific Yew tree, TaxusbrevifoliaNutt belonging
to the family Taxaceae.
Chemica Characteristic Features:
Taxol has the following characteristic features, namely:
(a) It has a taxane ring system,
(b) It has a four membered octane ring
(c) An ester side chain at C-13 of the taxane ring is a prime requirement for taxol’s
cytotoxic activity, and
(d) The presence of an accessible hydroxyl moiety at C-2 of the ester side chain
renders an appreciable enhancement of the cytotoxic activity.
13. Uses:
1. Taxol is primarily employed in the treatment and management of metastatic
carcinoma of the ovarian glands after the failure of follow-up chemotherapy.
2. It is also used in the treatment of breast cancer usually after the observed failure
of combination chemotherapy for metastatic disease.
3. Because of its hydrophobic nature the injectable concentrate of taxol formulation
meant for intravenous infusion is normally solubilized duly in polyoxyethylated
caster oil. However, before injection it should be appropriately diluted in normal
saline or dextrose solution or combination thereof.
10.Vincristine
Synonyms:
Leurocristine; VCR; LCR.
Biological Sources:
It is also obtained from Vinca rosea Lin., (Catharanthus roseus G. Don)
belonging to the natural order Apocynaceae.
Chemical Characteristic Features:
It may be named as: 22-Oxovincaleukoblastine.
1. It is obtained as blades from methanol having mp 218-220°C.
2. Its specific optical rotation [α]25 D + 17°; [α]25 D + 26.2° (ethylene chloride);
pKa: 5.0, 7.4 in 33% DMF.
14. 3. It has uv max (ethanol): 220, 255, 296 nm (log am 4.65, 4.21, 4.18).
Identification Tests:
Vincristine Sulphate (C46H56N4O10.H2SO4) (Vincrex, Oncovin, Vincosid,
Kyocrystine): Its crystals are obtained from ethanol and is found to be unstable.
Uses:
1. Vincristine sulphate is recommended for the treatment of acute lymphocytic
leukemia, and in combination therapy in Hodgkin's disease, lymphosarcoma,
reticulum cell sarcoma, neuroblastoma, Wilm's tumour and rhabdomyosarcoma.
Viucristine sulphate being highly unstable; therefore, its refregerated storage in
sealed ampules is absolutely essential.
2. It is broadly used as an antineoplastic agent.
11.Vinblastine
Synonyms:
Vincaleukoblastine; VLB; 29060-LE;
Biological Source:
It is obtained from Vinca rosea Lin.. (Apocynaceae).
Chemical Characteristic Features:
1. It is obtained as solvated needles from methanol having mp 211-216°C.
2. Its specific optical rotation [α]26 D + 42° (chloroform).
15. 3. It has uv max (ethanol): 214, 259 nm (log ε 4.73, 4.21).
4. It is soluble in alcohols, chloroform, acetone, ethyl acetate and is practically
insoluble in water and petroleum ether.
Uses:
1. The alkaloid is used for the treatment of a wide variety of neoplasms.
2. It is also recommended for generated Hodgkin’s disease, lymphocytic lymphoma,
hystiocytic hymphoma, mycosis fungoides, advanced testicular carcinoma, Kaposi's
sarcoma, and choriocarcinoma and lastly the breast cancer unresponsive to other
therapies.
3. It is effective as a single entity, however, it is normally given along with other
neoplastic agents in combination therapy for the increased therapeutic effect without
any noticeable additive toxicity.
4. It arrests mitosis at the metaphase.
5. It is found to be effective in the acute leukemia of children.
16. REFERENCES
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/
2. Trease and Evans Pharmacognosy 16th ed.
3. TEXTBOOK OF PHARMACOGNOSY AND PHYTOCHEMISTRY by
Biren Shah | A.K. Seth
4. Tyler’s Herbs of Choice The Therapeutic Use of Phytomedicinals Third
Edition