The document discusses several plants and plant products used as medicines, including their biological sources, chemical constituents, properties, uses, and commercial applications. It provides details on alkaloids, describing their physical and chemical properties as well as classes and tests. Examples of important alkaloid-containing plants are discussed in depth, such as vinca, rauwolfia, belladonna, opium, and tea.

1. GENERAL INTRODUCTION,
COMPOSITION, CHEMISTRY
AND CHEMICAL CLASSES,
BIOSOURCES THERAPEUTIC
USES AND COMMERCIAL
APPLICATIONS OF
FOLLOWING SECONDARY
METABOLITES
UNIT- II
Dr. R.Karthikeyan

2. Alkaloids:
Alkaloid, any of a class of naturally occurring organic
nitrogen-containing bases. Alkaloids have diverse and
important physiological effects on humans and other animals.
Well-known alkaloids include morphine, strychnine, quinine,
ephedrine, and nicotine. Abundantly distributed more than
12, 000 plants species with various plant families viz.
Rubiaceae, apocynaceae, loganaceae, ranunculaceae,
solanaceae, papaveraceae etc.

3. Properties
Physical properties
Chemical properties
Physical properties :
❑ With few exception, all the alkaloids are colourless,
crystalline solids with a sharp melting point or decomposition
range.
❑ Some alkaloids are amorphous gums, while others like
coniine, sparteine, nicotine etc, are liquid and volatile in
nature.
❑ The solubility of alkaloids and their salts is useful in
pharmaceutical industry for the extraction and formulation of
final pharmaceutical preparations.

4. Chemical properties:
❖ Most of the alkaloids are basic in reaction, due to the
availability of lone pair of electrons on nitrogen.
❖ The basic character of the alkaloid compound is enhanced if
the adjacent functional groups are electron releasing.
❖ The alkaloid turns to be natural or acidic when the adjacent
functional groups are electron withdrawing like amide group
which reduces the availability of the lone pair of electrons.

5. Chemical Tests For Alkaloids
➔ The qualitative chemical tests are used for detection of alkaloids are
dependent on the character of alkaloids to give precipitates as salts of
organic acids or with compounds of heavy metals, like mercury, gold,
platinum, etc.
➔ The different reagents used are
➔ Mayer’s reagent (potassium mercuric iodide solution) giving cream
coloured precipitate
➔ Dragendroff’s reagent (potassium bismuth iodide solution) giving
reddish brown precipitate
➔ Wagner’s reagent (iodine potassium iodide solution) yielding reddish
brown precipitate
➔ Some alkaloids also give yellow coloured precipitates with picric acid
called as Hagners reagent and picrolonic acid.

6. CLASSIFICATION OF ALKALOIDS
The various methods proposed for classification of alkaloids are as
follows:
Pharmacological classification :Depending on the physiological
response, the alkaloids are classified under various pharmacological
categories, like central nervous system stimulants or depressants,
sympathomimetics, analgesics, purgatives, etc.
Taxonomical classification : This method classifies the vast
number of alkaloids based on their distribution in various plant
families, like Rubiaceae, apocynaceae, loganaceae, ranunculaceae,
solanaceae, papaveraceae etc.

7. Biosynthetic classification : This method gives significance to the
precursor from which the alkaloids are biosynthesized in the plant.
Hence the variety of alkaloids with different taxonomic distribution
and physiological activities can be brought under same group.
Chemical classification
This is the most accepted way of classification of alkaloids. the main
criterion for chemical classification is the type of fundamental (normally
heterocyclic) ring structure present in alkaloid The alkaloidal drugs are
broadly categorized into two divisions.
a. Heterocyclic alkaloids (true alkaloids) are divided into twelve
groups according to nature of their heterocyclic ring.
b. Non - heterocyclic alkaloids (or) proto- alkaloids or biological
amines or pseudoalkaloids.

8. VINCA
Synonyms:- Vinca rosea, Catharanthus, periwinkle.
Biological Source:- Vinca is the dried entire plant of
Catharanthus roseus Linn .belonging to family Apocynaceae
Geographical Source:- The plant is a native of Madagascar
and is found in many tropical and subtropical countries
especially in India, Australia, South Africa and North and
South America. The plant is cultivated as garden plant in
Europe and India.

9. Macroscopic characters
➔ The leaves are green and roots are pale grey,
➔ flowers are violet pink - white or carmine - red in
colour .
➔ The odor is characteristic and taste is bitter. Vinca is an
erect pubescent herb, with branched tap-root. leaves are
simple, petiolate, ovate, or oblong ,unicostate, reticulate,
entire, brittle with acute apex and glossy appearance.
➔ Flowers are bractate, pedicellate, complete,
hermaphrodite, normally 2 - 3 cm in cymose axillary
clusters.
➔ Fruits are follicles with several black seeds.

10. Chemical Constituents
Alkaloids are present in entire shrub but leaves and roots contain more
alkaloids. About 90 alkaloids have been isolated from Vinca from which
some like Ajmalicine, Serpentine and Tetrahydroalstonine are known and
are present in other species of Apocynaceae. The important alkaloids in
Catharanthus are the dimer indole indoline alkaloids Vinblastine and
Vincristine and they possess definite anticancer activity.

11. Uses
❖ Vinblastine is an antitumor alkaloid used in the treatment of Hodgkin’s
disease.
❖ Vincristine is a cytotoxic compound and used to treat leukaemia in children.
❖ Vinca is used in herbal practice for its astringent and tonic properties in
menorrhagia and in hemorrhages generally.
❖ For bleeding piles, it may be applied externally, as well as taken
internally.
❖ It is also used in the treatment of diabetes.
❖ The flowers of the Periwinkle are gently purgative, but lose their effect on
drying.
Marketed Products
It is one of the ingredients of the preparation known as Cytocristin (Cipla).

12. RAUWOLFIA
Synonyms : Rauwolfia root, serpentina root,
Biological source: Rauwolfia consists of the dried roots and
rhizomes of Rauwolfia serpentina Benth. It contains not less
than 0.15% of reserpine.
Family: Apocynaceae
Geographical source: Several species of rauwolfia are found
distributed in the tropical regions of Asia, America and Africa.
Commercially, it is produced in india, Srilanka. In india is
cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, Orisa, Tamilnadu, West Bengal
And Gujarat.

13. Chemical constituents:
i. Alkaloids- Indole alkaloids (1.5 or 3%)
present.
ii. Weakly basic Indole type (pH 7 to 7.5)
iii. Reserpine group – Reserpine,
Rescinnamine, deserpidine.
iv. Tertiary indoline alkaloids (pH-8).
Ajmaline group- Ajmaline and Ajmalicine.
v. Strongly basic anhydronium bases (pH-11).
vi. Serpentine group – Serpentine,
Serpentinine and Alsotonine.

14. Uses:
1. Rauwolfia is antihypertensive in activity
2. Reserpine lowers the blood pressure
3. Deserpidine is used as an antihypertensive and tranquilizer.
Commercial applications:
Rauwolfia mainly applied as antihypertensive agent and tranquilizer.
Serpentine uses in combination with reserpine and supplements hypotensive action.
Ajmaline is used in pectoris and cardiac arrhythmia.
Ajmacillin is used to increase blood flow to the brain.

15. BELLADONNA
Synonyms: Belladonna herb, Belladonna leaves, deadly
nightshade leaves,
Biological sources : It consists of dried leaves and
flowering tops of Atropa belladonna Linn (European
belladonna) or Atropa acuminata Linn Royle ex Lindlej
(Indian belladonna).
Family : Solanaceae
Geographical source: Plant is a native of Central and
Southern Europe. It is cultivated in England, Germany,
Balkan countries, America and India.

16. Macroscopical characters of belladonna
Colour - Leaves - green to brownish - green
Flowers - Purple to yellowish - brown
Fruits - green to brown
Odour - Slight and characteristic
Taste - Bitter and acrid
Size - Leaves : 5-25 cm long and 2.5-12 cm wide
Flowers : Corolla 2.5 cm long and 1.5 cm wide
Fruits :about 10 cm in diameter
Shape - Leaves - ovate, lanceolate to broadly ovate, with acuminate apex,
decurrent lamina, entire margin, petiolate, brittle and transversely broken.
Flowers - Campanulate, 5 small reflexed lobes of corolla.
Fruits - Berries, sub- globular in shape with numerous flat seeds

17. Chemical constituents:
1.Tropane alkaloids (0.2-0.5%), L-hyoscyamine (90%)D, L-
hyoscyamine(Atropine), Scopolamine (10%), Apoatropine, Belladonnine
(+).
Uses:
i. Mydriatic (dilation of the pupil).
ii. Antispasmodic (a drug that counteracts a sudden, violent, involuntary
muscular contraction)
iii. Cerebral sedative (reduce excitement)
Commercial Applications : Various preparations of belladonna
are used as lotions, plasters and salves to relieve pain from sciatic ,
gout, and cardiac palpitations.
There are various preparations and different forms of belladonna are
available such as alcohol extract of belladonna leaves , fluid extract of
belladonna roots, tincture of belladonna leaves , belladonna
ointment, liniment, juice, plasters and combined pills etc.

18. OPIUM
Synonym : Raw opium
Biological source : It is the dried latex obtained by incision
from the unripe capsules of papaver somniferum linn., dried or
partly dried by heat or spontaneous evaporation , and worked
into somewhat irregularly shaped masses (natural opium) or
modulated into masses of more uniform size and shape
(manipulated opium).
Family : Papaveraceae
Geographical source: India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Turkey,
Russia, China And Iran

19. General introduction: Opium is extracted from poppy plant .
❖ It is opioid alkaloid.
❖ The plant is annual herb with 1-1.5 ft in height.
❖ Stems are erect and hairless.
❖ Leaves are large, numerous ovate to oblong. Serrate to dentate-serrate.
❖ Lower leaves are short whereas upper leaves are stalkless
❖ Flowers are cup shaped with different coloured, having long stalks up
to 25cm.
❖ Sepals are two in numbers, green, ovate.
❖ Petals are four in numbers.
❖ Stamens are many with white filaments.
❖ Fruit is a capsule, ovoid to globose, glabrous,
with 8-12 rayed sessile stigmas

20. Macroscopic Character
Odor: Strong , characteristic.
Taste: Bitter.
Color: Varies depending on the type of opium. For instance, Indian
opium is dark brown while manipulated Turkish opium is chocolate
brown in color.
Active constituents
❖ Morphine (up to 20%)
❖ Codeine (4-5%)
❖ Thebaine (up to 2%)
❖ Strong base that are
❖ Papaverine,
❖ Noscapine,
❖ Meconic acid.

21. Uses
Morphine:
1. Most powerful analgesic used in cases of severe pain as post operative
pain, bone fractures, cancer patients & in cases of angina.
2. Remedy in convulsions.
Codeine:
1. Is weaker in intensity than morphine.
2. Codeine depresses the cough center in the brain.
3. Causes constipation & hypnosis.
Heroin:
1. It is the synthetic diacetyl derivative of morphine.
2. It is 5 X more potent as morphine.
Papaverine:
1. It is a smooth muscle relaxant
Commercial applications: Morphine is used to manufacture Apo morphine,
codeine, ethyl-morphine, beta-4-morpholinyl ethyl morphine, benzyl
morphine, diacetylmorphine.
There are many commercial varieties of opium and available in various
forms such as powdered form , concentratum, camphorated tincture etc.,

22. Phenyl propanoids:
Phenylpropanoids are the diverse group of compounds derived from the
carbon skeleton of phenylalanine and tyrosine by the enzyme
phenylalanine –ammonia lyase (PAL) that are involved in plant defense,
structural support and survival.
The simple Phenylpropanoids is C6-C3
Flavanoids:
They are polyphenolic compounds, found ubiquitously in plants. They
have main roles as antioxidant activity with anti-inflammatory and
immune system benefits.
Diets rich in Flavonoids-containing foods are sometimes associated with
cancer, neurodegenerative and cardiovascular diseases prevention.
Phenyl propanoids and Flavonoids:

23. LIGNANS
Chemical class: They are belongs to polyphenols.
Biosource: They are found in a wide variety of plant based foods,
including seeds, whole grains, legimes, fruit, and vegetables.
Food rich in lignans as flzx seeds (Linseed) which contains
secoisolaricciresinol. Podophyllotoxin is natural occuring aryltetralin
lignin, obtained from podophyllum hexandrum belongs to family
Berberidaceae.
Morphology : As per carbon skeleton present in lignan and the way in
which oxygen is incorporated lignans are classified into several groups
viz. Furofuran, Furan, Dibenzylbutane, dibenzylbutyrolactol,.
Furofuran Furan Dibenzylbutane

24. Chemical constituents: Their basic chemical structure is
consist of two phenyl propane units linked by C-C bond
between the central atoms of the respective side chains
(Position - 8) which is also known as β-β bond.
In these cases, the dimers are known as neolignans. So
their chemical structure is referred as (C6-C3)2 and they are
included in the phenylpropanoids group.
Chemical test:
0.5 ml of aqueous solution of extract + 2 ml of 2% (v/v)
fufuraldehyde in a test tube –gives red color indicates presence of
lignans

25. Lignans extraction from linseed seeds

26. Quantitative analysis:
Secoisolaricciresinol diglucoside estimation in flaxseed extract by HPLC
Column : Luna C8
Mobile Phase : Aqueous acetic acid : Acetonitrile (85: 15 v/v)
Detection : UV at 280 nm
Flow rate : 1 ml/min
Injection : 100 micro litre
Rt : 9.6 min
Therapeutic uses: Lignans serve an antioxidant role in the plant’s
defenses against biotic and abiotic factors.
They are also act as antiviral, anticancer, anti-inflammatory,
antimicrobial, hepatoprotective, immunosuppressive etc.
Commercial applications: In market lignans are available in
concentrated products of flax seeds.

27. TEA
Synonyms: Tea, chaay,syamparni, teyaku, tey
Biological source: It is obtained from beans of coffee
(Coffea arabica, C. canephora) And leaves of tea (Thea
sinensis; Camella sinensis).
Family: Rubiaceae (coffee); Theaceae (Tea)
General introduction: Tea plant grows widely in the
tropical subtropical regions of the world.
It has more than 325 varieties of genus camellia, only
two verities of tea are commercially viable for
producing tea.

28. Macroscopy of leaves:
Colour: Dark green
Odour: Characteristics
Taste: Bitter
Size: Elliptical
Shape: Lanceolate, apex is blunt,
base is tapering margin
Chemical constituents : The most important chemical compounds in fresh leaves
are polyphenols, aminoacids, enzymes, pigments, carbohydrates, methylxanthines,
minerals and many volatile flavour and aroma which are responsible for producing
teas with desirable appearance, aroma and taste.
The major flavanols that are present in tea are like catechin, epicatechin,
epicatechin gallate, gallocatechin.
The main methylxanthines such as caffeine, theobromine and theophylline
present in tea which are responsible for the stimulant action. The caffeine (1-4%)
is present in the tea leaves.

29. General extraction :
Tea powder + caco3+ water
Filter with muslin cloth during hot conditioning and transferred in
separating funnel
Boiled for 40 min.
Chloroform is added 3 times
Chloroform layer is collected
Filtered the chloroform layer using
activated charcoal
While filtrate then evaporated to dryness
Flakes of caffeine and sublimation
Pure Caffeine

30. Chemical test :
Murexide test: Crystal of caffeine + drop of conc.Hcl and traces of
Kclo3 evaporated on water bath red colour
produced +nh3 vapour turns to violet.
Tannic acid test: Sample + Tannic acid solution white ppt
forms ppt dissolved in excess amount of tannic acid solution.
Ferrous sulphate test: Sample solution + drops of Br2 water + few
drops of ammonia solution + few drops of ferrous sulphate
gives the blue colour produces

31. Therapeutic uses : It acts as antioxidant, cns stimulant, anti cancer,
antidiabetic, anticholesterimic.
It prevents skin disorders, respiratory diseases, liver diseases etc.
Commercial applications:
❖ Green tea is used in functional beverages for their antioxidant
properties. Tea leaves kill dust mites.
❖ Leaves are uses in preparation of mouth washes due to its
antiseptic property, it also reduces acne on face, improves skin toning
activity.
❖ Boiled leaves mixed with lemon juice is use as hair conditioner.

32. RUTA
Synonyms: Garden Rue, rue, sadab, sadapaha, sudapa, aruda, sada.
Biological source: It is obtained from dried leaves and roots of ruta
graveolens.
Family: Rutaceae.
General introduction: Ruta is shrubby plant with the height of 2-3
feet.
The plant is ash green in colour.
The leaves are disagreeable odour.
The leaves are tiny, arranged alternative on the stem.
The flowers are yellow-, small size with 4-5 petels.
The lower part of the stem is woody.
Leaves are alternate, bluish-green and either bi-or tripinnate.

33. They have a strong unpleasant odour and a very bitter disagreeable
flavour.
The plant blossoms from june-september.
Fruits are brown seed capsule.
Morphology of leaves:
Colour : Bluish green
Odour : Strong unpleasant
Taste : Very bitter
Size : 7.5 to 20 cm long and 2-3 cm broad
Shape : Alternate, bi-or tripinnate, ovate or oblong; deeply lobed
obovate.

34. Chemical constituents: The main active principles of the plant are rutin
(Flavonoid glycosides)
Alkaloids (Coquisagenine, skimmianine and graveoline; furocoumarins
(psoralens), such as bergaptene (3-methoxypsoralen) and xanthotoxin (8-
methoxypsoralen).
General Extraction Of Ruta :
❖ Powdered leaves sample is extracted with 80% etyhanol.
❖ Extract is further evaporated under vaccum and made concentrated.
❖ Further the concentrated product is extracted with equal volume of ether and
then ether layer is spearated.
❖ Aqueous layer is collected and ether layer is discarded.
❖ Aqueous layer is concentrated under reduced pressure and further kept in a
refrigerator at 50C for overnight.
❖ A solid crystalline substance is precipitated which is separated from the liquid.
❖ This is crude rutin which is further purified by column chromatography using
magnesium silicate as a absorbent and ethanol as eluent.

35. Chemical tests:
Sample + Lead acetate Yellow precipitate
Sample + Ferric chloride Greenish brown colour
Sample + Ammoniacal silver nitrate solution
Produce silver mirror.
Therapeutic uses: It is used as an anthelmintic, antispasmodic,
antiepileptic, rubefaciant in herbal formulations for animals.
It improves the digestion strength.
It is also used as antioxidant, anticancer, insect repellent, reduces blood
pressure.
Rutin is useful in treatment of retinal haemmorrhages.
Commercial applications: The leaf infusion is used for proper regulation
of menstrual flow. The plant decoction is used fro a washing of fungal
infections and ring worm infections.

36. STEROIDS ,
CARDIAC
GLYCOSIDES AND
TRITERPENOIDS

38. Cardiac Glycosides

39. Triterpenoids

40. Licorice
Synonyms: Mulethi, Radix glycyrrhizae,
Licorice,, Yashtimadhu
Botanical source: It consists of
subterranean peeled and unpeeled stolons,
roots, and subterranean stems of
Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn.
Family: Leguminosae
Geographical source: It is produced in a number
of countries like Iran, Russia, Spain, Greece,
U.S.S.R., and India.

41. MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS
Colour : Peeled - pale yellow ,unpeeled -
yellowish brown to dark brown.
Odour : Faint and characteristic,
Taste : Sweet , free from bitterness.

42. Chemical constituents:
1. Saponin glycosides: Glycyrrhizin and glycyrrhetic acid.
2. Flavonoids: Liquiritin, liquiritigenin, isoliquiritin and isoliquiritigenin.
3. Coumarin derivatives: Herniarin, umbelliferone.
4. Bitter principle: glyceramarin.
5. Asparase, β-sitosterol, starch, resin and malic acid

43. Uses:
Demulcent and expectorant, Tonic, Laxative.
Diuretic and emollient property.
Anti-inflammatory & Spasmolytic agent.
Cough and peptic ulcer.
Chewing gums, chocolate candy, cigarette and chewing tobacco.
Applications: It is used as energy tonic, particularly for the spleen
and stomach , and the root is added to many formulae.
It is used as an important ingredient in medicinal oils, for epilepsy,
paralysis, diseases.

44. DIOSCOREA
Synonyms: Yam, Rheumatism root.
Biological source: It is consists of the dried tubers of the plants, Dioscorea deltoidea,
D.composita, and other species of Dioscorea,
Family: Dioscoreaceae
Geographical source: Dioscorea is found in North America, Japan, China, Mexico,
India and Nepal. In India, the plant grows wildly in Western Himalayas, Karnataka,
Kashmir, West Bengal, etc.
Cultivation and collection:
Climatic conditions: Following climatic conditions are more favorable for
cultivation of Dioscorea rhizomes.
Altitude: 1000-3000 metres above sea level.
Soil: Sandy loamy clay soil but preferably acid, neutral or slightly alkaline soil.
Temperature: Sunny situation or warm green house. Moist soil is also preferred.

45. Macroscopic characters:
Colour : Slightly brown
Odour : Odorless
Taste : Bitter
Size : Varies depending upon age of rhizome
Microscopic characters:
⮚ Epidermis is normally absent in the transverse section of the drug.
⮚ The cork consists of only few layers, followed by thin walled cortical
parenchymatous tissue.
⮚ Stele forms the major part of the drug and consists of several close
collateral fibro vascular bundles.
⮚ Endodermis and pericycle are indistinguishable.

46. Chemical constituents:
1.Steroidal Saponin glycosides: Dioscin and its aglycone is diosgenin.
Small quantity of Hecogenin.
2. Resin- Botagenin.
3. Alkaloids: Dioscorine.
4. Sterol: Cholesterol, stigmasterol, P-sitosterol.
5.Enzyme: Sapogenase.
Uses:
1. Diosgenin is used as a precursor for the synthesis of many steroidal
drugs like corticosteroids, sex hormones and oral contraceptives.
2. It is also used in rheumatism.
Commercial applications: it is used as a precursor for the synthesis of
many steroidal drugs like corticosteroids, sex hormones and oral
contraceptives.

47. DIGITALIS
Synonyms: Digitalis Leaves, foxglove Leaves
Biological source: Digitalis consists of dried leaves of
Digitalis purpurea Linn. After collection leaves are dried
immediately at temperature below 6oC and they contain not
more than 5% moisture.
Family: Scrophulariaceae
Geographical source: It is found in European countries,
England, France, Germany, North America and India. In India,
it is cultivated in Kashmir and Nilgiri Hill.

48. Macroscopical characters:
(i) General appearance: Usually broken and crimped.
(ii) Shape: Ovate-lanceolate.
(iii) Size: 10 to 40-cm. Long.
(iv) Wide Margin: Crenate or dentate
(v) Apex: obtuse or rounded
(vi) Base: Tapering, decurrent

49. Chemical constituents:
❖ The primary glycosides are purpurea glycosides A and B.
❖ Verodoxin and glucoverodoxin.
❖ The digitoxigenin, Digitoxin, Gitoxigenin, gitaloxin are also
important medicinal compounds. They are also called secondary
glycosides.
❖ They contain anthraquinones derivatives like digitolutin,
methoxy-2 methyl anthraquinones, etc
❖ Contains saponin, flavonoids, Tannins and pectin.

50. Uses:
1. Cardio tonic.
2. Used in various forms like tablets or capsules in the treatment of
congestive cardiac failure.
3. Diuretic in cardiac edema.
Commercial applications:
Digitalis is only one herb drug which directly use in allopathic
medicine.
Direct I.V. Inject form is applied in congestive heart failure.
Digoxin is available as oral and an injection forms.

51. VOLATILE OILS:
❖ Volatile oils are also known as essential oils due to presence of aroma.
❖ They are volatile in nature in room temperature.
❖ They are generally mixtures of hydrocarbons and oxygenated
compounds derived from these hydrocarbons.
❖ The odour and taste of volatile oils are mainly due to by the
oxigenated compounds.
❖ They are secreted from the oil cells, in secretion ducts, or cavities or
from glandular hairs from the plants.

52. MENTHA
Synonym : Brandy Mint, Mentha oil, Colpermin
Botanical Source : It is the oil obtained by the distillation of Mentha piperita,
Family : Labiatae.
Geographical Source : Mentha species are cultivated in various parts of the world.
It grows wild in europe, while it is cultivated in japan, England, france, italy, USA.
In india, it is cultivated near jammu and in Tarai region of Uttar pradesh.
Description :
Colour : Colourless to yellow
Odour : characteristic and pleasant
Taste : Pungent followed by cooling sensation

53. Chemical Constituents
❖ The chief constituent of Peppermint oil is Menthol, along with other
constituents like menthyl acetate, isovalerate, menthone, cineol, inactive
pinene, limonene, and other less important bodies.
Chemical test:
A few drops of peppermint oil are mixed with 5 ml of nitric acid
solution(prepared by adding 1 ml of nitric acid to 300 ml of glacial
acetic acid, heat on water bath.
Within five minutes liquid develops-blue colour, which on futher heating
deppens and shows copper colours fluorescence after sometime it
becomes golden yellow.

54. Uses:
❖ It is stimulant, stomachic, carminative, and colic; in some dyspepsia,
sudden pains, for cramp in the abdomen and also in cholera and diarrhea.
❖ Oil of peppermint allays sickness and nausea, as infants cordial.
❖ Peppermint is good to aid in raising internal heat and inducing perspiration.
❖ It is also used in cases of hysteria and nervous disorders.
Commercial applications:
Infusion: Pour 150ml of hot water over 1.5-3.0 g dried
leaves , sleep for 10 minutes, strain and drink three times
daily between meals.
Tincture : 2-3 ml (1:5, 45% ethanol) three times daily.

55. CLOVE
Synonyms: Caryophyllum Clove buds; Clove flower.
Biological source: It consists of the dried flower buds of Eugenia caryophyllus.
Family: Myrtaceae.
Geographical source: It is indigenous to amboyna and molucca islands. It is now
cultivated chiefly in Zanzibar, pemba, pennang, Madagascar, Caribbean islands,
srilanka and india.
Macroscopical characters:
Style: Single and erect.
Colour: Dark brown or crimson red
Odour: Aromatic, spicy, Strong.
Taste: Pungent, aromatic, followed by numbness
The volatile oil is situated in the schizolysigenous oil glands or ducts which are
present in all parts of the flower buds (hypodermis).

56. Chemical constituents:
1. Volatile oil (16-21%):- Phenol chiefly Eugenol (80-88), acetyl eugenol
(10- 15%); α and β -Caryophyllene.
2. Tannins (10-13%) – Pyrogallol tannins.
3. Other substances are methyl furfural and dimethyl furfural.
Uses:
1. used as Antiseptic, Stimulant. Carminative. Flavouring agent. Local
anaesthetic (Eugenol). Spice
2. Used in toothache, dental preparations and mouthwashes &Oil in
perfumery.
3. Clove oil and zinc oxide are used in temporary filling of dental cavities.
Commercial applications:
Generally clove is marketed as many forms like oil of cloves, tooth paste,
powder form for the health benefits.

57. CINNAMON
Synonym : Cinnamon bark, kalmi-dalchini (Hindi), ceylon cinnamon
Biological source: It consists of the dried inner bark of the shoots of
coppiced trees of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Nees (Cinnamomum verum
J. S. Presl.)
Family: Lauraceae
Geographical source: Cinnamon, the evergreen tree of tropical area, is
considered to be native of Sri Lanka and Malabar Coast of India. It is also
found in Jamaica and Brazil. However, most of the world requirements
are met by Sri Lanka and hence true cinnamon is known as Sri Lanka
cinnamon.

58. Macroscopical characters
Colour: The outer surface is dull yellowish-brown, while the inner
surface is dark yellowish-brown.
Odour: Fragrant.
Taste: Aromatic and sweet followed by warm sensation.
Chemical Constituents:
(i) About 0.5 to 1.0% of volatile oil,
(ii) 1.2% of tannins (phlobatannins),
(iii) Mucilage iv) Calcium oxalate EUGENOL

59. (v) Starch
(vi) Sweet substance known as mannitol.
(vii) Cinnamon oil contains 60-70% of cinnamaldehyde, 5-10% eugenol, and
benzaldehyde, cuminaldehyde and other terpenes like phellandrene, pinene,
cymene, Caryophyllene, etc.
Uses:
Carminative, Stomachic, Mild astringent, Flavouring agent
Aromatic & Used as a spice and condiment
Preparation of candy, dentrifies and perfumes.
Commercial applications: Cinnamon capsules is used for sugar metabolism,
heart and circulatory health.
Cinnamon bark oil is used as a flavouring agent and also in perfumery industry.

60. FENNEL
Synonyms: Fennel fruit, fructus foeniculum.
Biological source: The drug consists of the dried ripe fruit of
Foeniculum vulgare Mill.
Family: Umbelliferae.
Geological source: It is indigenous to mediterranean countries and
largely cultivated in Romania, Russia, Germany, France, india and
Japan. In india, it is cultivated in Gujarat, Punjab, Maharashtra,
rajasthan, uttar pradesh and west bengal.

61. MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERS
Colour: Green to yellowish brown
(ii) Odour: Sweet aromatic.
(iii) Taste: Strongly aromatic
(iv) Size: 5 to 1 0 x 2 to 4 mm
(V). Shape: Straight or slightly curved.

62. Chemical Constituents:
❖ Fennel contains volatile oil (1-4%), fixed oil (9-12%) and proteins
(20%).
❖ The chief constituents of volatile oil are a phenolic ether anethole
(50-60%)
❖ Anethole has an aromatic odour and sweet taste whereas fenchone
has a camphoraceous odour and taste.
❖ Volatile oil also contains methyl chavicol, anisic aldehydes, α and
β- pinene, ascorbic acid, niacin, riboflavin, etc.

63. Uses:
1. Flavoring oil agent
2. Carminative
3. Expectorant
4. Stimulant
Stomachic
6. Anthelmintic.
7. It is also useful in dental and mouth wash preparation due to pleasant taste of
anethole.
8. Fennel water is useful in colic and flatulence in children.
Commercial applications: Fennel oil is useful in pharmaceutical industry as a
cough medicine, antiseptic, and laxative and as an addictive substance in various
types of cuisine, bakery, confectionary pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.

64. CORIANDER
Synonym : Coriander fruits, cilanthro leaves
Biological source: These are the fully dried ripe fruits of the plant known as
Coriandrum sativum
Family: Umbelliferae
Geographical source: Plant is cultivated throughout European countries,
principally in Russia, Hungary and Holland.
It is also cultivated in india, Egypt and morocco.
In india, it is widely cultivated in andhrapradesh (Guntur, ananthapur).

65. Macroscopic characters:
Colour: Yellowish- brown to brown.
Odour: Aromatic
Taste: Spicy and characteristic.
Shape: Sub-globular cremocarpous fruit
Size: Fruits are 2-4 mm in diameter and 4- 30 mm in length
About 10 primary ridges and 8 secondary ridges are present. Primary
ridge are wavy and inconspicuous, while secondary ridge are straight. It is
further described as an endospermic and a coelospermic fruit. The weight
of 100 fruits is approximately 1 g.

66. Chemical Constituents:
1. Volatile oil:
(i) Main (+) linalool (coriandrol) and α-pinene
(ii) Limonene
(iv) P-cymene
(v) Camphor
(vi) Geraniol
(vii) Borneol
2. Fixed oil
3. Malic acid, 4.Tannin, 5. Vitamin A.

67. USES
1. Carminative
2. Flavouring agent
3. Anthelmintic
4. Aromatic
5. Diuretic
6. Stimulant
7. Stomachic
8. Aphrodisiac.
9. Oil is used along with purgatives to prevent gripping
Commercial applications: coriander
oil is one of the constituent in
aromatic elixir preparation.
Coriander oil is also use in
aromatherapy.

68. TANNINS
❖ Tannins are non –nitrogenous high molecular complex of
plant polyphenols.
❖ They have ability to combine with proteins of animal hides
and converts into leather.
❖ They are a class of astringent that bind to and precipitate
proteins and various other organic compounds includig
amino acids and alkaloids.
❖ They are water soluble organic compounds.

69. BLACK CATECHU
Synonyms : Kattha, catechu, Khadir - catechu
Biological source: It consists of dried aqueous extract prepared from the
heartwood of acacia catechu wild and Acacia chundra wild family Leguminosae.
Plants used for preparation of catechu are grown in india and myanmar.
Macroscopical Characters:
Colour: Light brown to black
Size : About 2.5 – 5 cm
Shape: Cube or irregular fragments of broken cubes or brick shaped pieces.
Fracture: Very brittle breaking into powdery mass;
Odour: None
Taste: Very astringent.

70. Chemical Constituents:
1. It contains tannins like catechins, catechu tannic acid,
2. It is also contains flavonoids like quercetin and it derivatives.
3. Others-Catechu red and gum, etc.
Uses:
1. Astringent
2. Cooling and digestive agents.
3. It is used in relaxed conditions of throat,
mouth and gums.
4. It is also used in diarrhoea and in preparation of lozenges.
Commercial applications: Acacia
catechu + commiphora mukul+
Hamamelis (used as gargle for
pharyngitis and gingivitis).

71. PALE CATECHU (GAMBIER)
Synonyms : Catechu, gambir, gambier
Biological source: Pale catechu consists of the dried aqueous extract prepared
from the leaves and shoots of Uncaria gambier Roxburgh
Family: Rubiaceae.
Geographical source:
❖ The plant is indigenous to South east Asian regions like Archipelago in
Malaysia; presently it is also cultivated in singapore and Indonesia.
❖ Presently it is cultivated in singapore and Indonesia.
Cultivation And Collection : The cultivation is carried out in fields up to 170m
height and propagation is done by sowing seeds in damp soil.
Nursery beds are raised and after 9 months, the seedlings are transplanted in open
fields.

72. Macroscopical characters:
Colour: Reddish brown, inner surface is pale brown colour
Surface: Dull,
Fracture: Brittle,
Odour: Odourless;
Taste: Astringent.
Size : Each side is about 2.5 cm,2-5 cm long.
Shape : Cubical
Chemical Constituents:
1. It contains tannins like catechins.
2. It is also contains flavonoids like quercetin and
a fluorescent substances- gambir fluorescein

73. Uses:
i. Astringent:
ii. It is used in relaxed conditions of throat, mouth and gums.
iii. It is used in lies in dyeing and tanning industry.
iv. It is also used in diarrhea and in preparation of lozenges.
Applications:
It is used as local astringent in the form of lozenges.
It is also used in dyeing and tanning industries and also
protecting the fishing nets.

74. PTEROCARPUS
Synonyms : Bijasal, Indian Kino tree, Malbar Kino, red sandal wood.
Biological Sources : It consists of dried juice of the plant pterocarpus
marsupium Linn.
Family : Leguminosae.
Geographical Sources : It is found in hilly regions of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,
Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Orissa. It is also found in forests of Karnal, Kerala, West
Bengal, and Assam.
Chemical Constituents
❖ Kino contains about 70–80% of kinotannic acid, kino-red, k-pyrocatechin
(catechol), resin and gallic acid.
❖ Kinotannic acid is glucosidal tannin, whereas kino-red is anhydride of Kinoin.
❖ Kinoin is an insoluble phlobaphene and is produced by the action of oxydase
enzyme. It is darker in colour than kinotannic acid.

75. MACROSCOPICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Uses
❖ Kino is used as powerful astringent and also in the treatment of diarrhoea and
dysentery, passive haemorrhage, toothache, and in diabetes.
❖ It is used in dyeing, tanning, and printing.
Commercial applications: Extracts of the wood and bark are used as skin and
hair conditioners in commercial cosmetic preparations.
The heart wood is saturated with the gum and forms a yellow dye.
It makes a good mouthwash and gargle.

76. RESINS
❑ Resins are the amorphous products of complex chemical
nature.
❑ They are simply extractions of plant material, are taken
from either from the whole plant or from specific parts of the
plant (bark of trees, flowers of herbs, and buds of shrubs)
depending on the availability and desired effect.
❑ They produced in special resin cells known as
Schizogenous cells in the plants or at the site of injury of the
plants and oozes out through the bark and hardens on
exposure to air.

77. BENZOIN
Synonym : Sumitra benzoin, loban
Biological source : Benzoin is the balsamic resin obtained
from the incised stem of Styrax benzoin Dryander and Styrax
paralleloneurus Perkins.
Family: Styracaceae
Geographical source: Sumatra benzoin is produced from
trees grown in south eastern asia,chiefly Sumatra.
Siam benzoin is obtained from trees grown in Thailand and
Vietnam.

78. Macroscopical characteristics
Colour : It is greyish - brown or grey.
Odour : Aromatic and characteristic
Taste : Sweetish and slightly acrid
It occurs in the form of lumps of varying sizes or tears.
Tears are externally yellowish, milky white.
The surface is uneven. when heated, fumes of benzoic and cinnamic acids are
produced.
Chemical constituents:
❖ It contains 23% free balsamic acids containing mainly Cinnamic acid.
❖ It contains 70- 80% resin consisting of Triterpenoids acids, siaresinolic acid
(19-hydroxy oleanolic acid) and sumaresinolic acid (6-hydroxy oleanolic acid)
and their esters with balsamic acids at hydroxyl group.
❖ It is also contains vanillin, sterol (phenyl ethylene) and phenyl propyl
cinnamita responsible for the aromatic smell.

79. Uses:
1. It is used as antiseptic, expectorant, stimulant and healing
agent.
2. It is used in the preparation of compound benzoin tincture.
3. It is use as inhalation in respiratory disease.
Commercial applications:
Tincture : 10 to 40 drops; fluid benzoin: 5 to 15 drops.

80. GUGGUL
Synonyms : Gumgugul, commiphora.
Biological Source : Guggul is a gumresin obtained by incision of the bark of
Commiphora weightii belonging to Burseraceae.
Geographical Source : The tree is a small, thorny plant distributed throughout
India. mainly found in rajasthan and Gujarat states.
Ajmer and jaisalmer districts of rajasthan are the prominent habitats.
Macroscopy characteristics
Colour : Brown to pale yellow or dull green.
Odour: Agreeable,aromatic and balsamic
Taste : Characteristic bitter
Size : 0.5 to 1.00 to 2.5 cm in diameter
Shape : Rounded or irregular masses or agglomerated tears.
Solubility : When triturated with water , it forms white emulsion. It is partly
soluble in alcohol.

81. Chemical Constituents : Z - Guggulsterone, E- Guggulsterone & 3 New sterols
like guggulosterol I, II and III.
Uses
❖ Guggul significantly lowers serum triglycerides and cholesterol as
well as LDL and VLDL cholesterols (the bad cholesterols).
❖ At the same time, it raises levels of HDL cholesterol (the good
cholesterol).
❖ Also gum is astringent, anti - rheumatic, antiseptic, expectorant.

82. Commercial applications: Paste of Guggul is locally applied in
rheumatoid arthritis, cervical lymphadenitis, skin diseases, piles etc.
It reduces foul smell and swelling of wounds.
It vapours are very useful as deodorant and disinfectant in the house.
Gargling is useful in pyorrhoea and dental disorders.

83. GINGER
Synonyms: Zingiber, Rhizoma zingiberis, Saunth, Ginger root, Calamus.
Biological source: It consists of dried and scraped rhizomes of zingiber officinale
(Family : Zingiberaceae) which is devoid of its darker outer skin.
Characteristics:
Colour : Outer surface is light pink
Odour : Aromatic and agreeable
Taste : Pungent
Size : Length : 5-15cm. Width: 1.5-6.5 cm
Shape : Ginger occurs as branched pieces called as hands or races. They are
laterally compressed.
Appearance : Shrunken, the rhizome shows oblique branches whose length is 1-3
cm. These branches end in scars or buds which are not completely developed. Outer
surface shows the presence of longitudinal striations or fibres.
Fracture : Short
83

84. Chemical constituents:
Ginger contains 1-4% volatile oil, 40-60%starch, 10% fat, 5 %
fibre, 10%moisture and 5-8 %resinous matter.
1. The aromatic principles of ginger are,
a) Monoterpenes like β-phellandrene, camphene, ∝-pinene,
cumene, limonene, citral, cineole, borneol etc.
b) Sesquiterpene hydrocarbons like zingiberene bisabolene
etc.
2. Pungent principles of ginger oil are non-volatile phenyl
ketones like gingerol, zingerone, shogaols,etc.
These ketones are responsible for flavour and pharmacological
action of ginger.
Zingiberene
β-Bisabolene
Zingerone
84

85. USES
1. Ginger is stomachic, stimulant and aromatic carminative.
2. It is used more as a spice.
3. Ginger oil is used in mouth washes, ginger beverages and liquors.
4. It is used as Flavouring agent.
5. Ginger powder has been reported to be effective in motion sickness.
Commercial Applications: 0.5g to 1.5 g of powdered ginger is effective
in nausea and vomiting during pregnancy, an average daily dose of 2 to 4
grams is safe for the human consumption.

86. ASAFOETIDA
Synonyms : Asafoetida, gum asafoetida, devil’s dung
Biological sources : It is the oleo-gum-resin obtained by
incising the living rhizomes and roots of Ferula asfoetida (F.
Foetida Regal).
Family: Umbelliferae.
Geographical source : It is a genus of perennial herbs
distributed from Mediterranean region to central Asia,
specifically Iran and Afghanistan.
Three species of ferula are found in india.
Ferula narthex occurs in kashmir

87. Macroscopical characters:
Colour : Yellowish - white changing to reddish - brown
Odour : Intense, persistent, penetrating and alliaceous
Taste : Bitter, alliaceous and acid
Size : The tears are 0.5-3 cm in diameter
Shape : It occurs in 2 different forms i.e. tears and masses. Tears are
rounded or flattened
Chemical constituents:
Asaresinotannols ‘A’ and ‘B’
Ferulic acid
Umbelliferone
Ferulic acid
Umbelliferone

88. Uses:
1. As a carminative (relieve excessive collection of gas in the stomach).
2. As an expectorant
3. As an antispasmodic (a drug that counteracts a sudden, violent,
involuntary muscular contraction).
4. As a laxative (which induces active movement of bowels).
Commercial application: Powdered resin 300- 1000 mg three times
daily.
Tincture of asafoetida 2-4 ml or 20 drops as a single dose.

89. MYRRH
Synonyms: Gum myrrh, bol, myrrha
Biological source: Myrrh is the oleoresin-resin obtained by incision from the
stem of Commiphora molmol Engler and from other Commiphora species.
Family : Burseraceae
Geographical sources : It is found in north africa and southern arabia
Description :
Colour : Externally , it is reddish - brown , internally, brown
Odour : Aromatic and agreeable
Size : About 1.5 to 3.0 cm in diameter
Shape : It is found in the form of rounded (or) irregular tears.

90. Chemical constituents:
1. Volatile oil (2.5-8%) – Cuminic aldehydes, α-pinene, limonene and sesquiterpenes.
2. Resin (25-40%) – Resin acids like-α, β, γ-commiphoric acids.
3. Gums (60%) – yield on hydrolysis arabinose, 4-O-methyl glucoronic acid and aldebiuronic acid.
Uses:
1. Antiseptic.
2. Stimulant.
3. Used in mouth wash and tooth paste and In perfume industry.
Commercial applications: Myrrh tincture 1-2 ml thrice a day

91. COLOPHONY
Synonyms : Rosin; amber - resin, gum - resin, Greek pitch
Biological source : Colophony is the residue left after the distillation of the oil of
turpentine from the crude - oleo- resin obtained from various species of pinus
Family : Pinaceae
Geographical source : It is prepared in north america, northern europe, pakistan
and india.
Macroscopical characteristics:
Colour : Pale yellow to yellowish brown or amber colour
Odour : Faint and terebinthinate
Taste : It occurs in the form of angular, translucent masses of various sizes.
Fracture – Brittle
Surface – Smooth
Solubility: Being a resin, insoluble in water but soluble in alcohol, ether, benzene, glacial acetic
acid and light petroleum.

92. Chemical constituents:
Resin acids- Resin acid or diterpene acids like 90 % abietic acid
The drug also contains esters of oleic acid and resin acids.
It also contains 0.5 % volatile oil,5 to 6 % resins.
Uses:
1. It is used in preparation of like plasters and ointment.
2. It is also used in manufactures of varnishes and disinfecting liquids.
Commercial applications:
Adults and children above 12 years age :1-2 once daily .
Infants: 20-30 mg once daily.

93. Glycosides
❑ Glycosides are the compounds which contains aglycone part with a
common feature that is sugar or glycone part.
❑ Due to the presence of the sugar part, it generally gives the positive
Mollisch test.
❑ Glycosides as such or their separated glycone part after hydrolysis.
❑ All glycosides or their aglycone can be identified by specific chemical
tests for the chemical nature of aglycone units.

94. SENNA
Synonyms: Senna leaf, sennae folium,cassia senna
Biological sources : It consists of dried leaflet of cassia
angustifolia or cassia senna vahl
Family : Leguminosae
Geographical sources : Indian senna is cultivated and
collected in india.
Its cultivation is mainly done in tinnevelley,madurai and
ramanathapuram districts of tamilnadu .
Cultivation is attempted in kadapa district of andhra pradesh
and to some extent it is collected from kutch in gujarat state
and rajasthan.

95. Macroscopical characteristics of senna
Colour – Yellowish-green
Odour – Slight
Taste – Mucilagenous, bitter and characteristic
Size –7 to 8 mm in width and 25 to 60 mm in length
Shape - Leaves are lanceole, entire, apex is acute with spine at the top. Bases of
the leaflets are asymmetrical with transverse lines, more prominent on lower
surface, while the trichomes are present on both the surfaces.
Chemical constituents:
1. Senna contains anthraquinones glycoside glycosides as sennosides A,
sennosides B, sennosides-C, sennosides D, emodin, chrysophenol, Aloe
emodin, rhein.
2. Sterol and its glycoside.
3. Mucilage, resin and calcium oxalate.

96. Uses:
Used as laxative and cathartic.
Powder senna is mixed with vinegar and applied externally to
cure skin diseases.
Commercial applications:
❑ In market senna is available in tablet , powder, capsule and
extract forms.
❑ For constipation in adults and childres age 12 and over : The
usual dose is 17.2 mg daily, or even up to 34.4 mg per day.
❑ For constipation in children: 8.5 mg daily increased just
enough to cause one bowel movementr dail;y has been used.
❑ For constipation in elderly people: 17 mg daily has been
used.

97. ALOE
Synonym : aloe, musabbar,kumari
Biological source : Aloe is the dried juice collected by incision from the
bases of the leaves of various species of aloe.
Family : Liliaceae
Geographical sources : There are about 160 species of aloe from which the
following species are important and utilized for the preparation of aloe.
Macroscopical characters of aloe
Curacao aloe:
(i) Shape: Opaque
(ii) Colour: yellow-brown to chocolate-brown. Inferior over-heated drug is
nearly black.
(iii) Odour: strong odour resembles with Iodoform.
(iv) Taste: Bitter
(v) Fracture: waxy.

98. Cape aloe:
❖ Colour: Dark chocolate or green-chocolate. Small pieces
are reddish- brown or yellow coloured or amber.
❖ Odour: Characteristic, sour
❖ Taste: unpleasant and bitter.
❖ Texture: Breaks with a glassy fraction
Socotrine aloe:
❖ Colour: yellow -brown to dark brown and opaque.
❖ Fracture: Irregular and porous.
❖ Taste: bitter.
❖ Odour: Unpleasant

99. Zanzibar aloe:
Opaque, more firm than Socotrine
Colour: brown.
Fracture: smooth as wax.
Odour: considered pleasant
Taste: bitter.
Chemical Constituents:
❖ Aloe may contain upto 30% aloin which is a mixture of three isomers:
barbaloin, β-barbaioin and isobarbaloin.
❖ Barbaloin present in all the four varieties is slightly yellow-coloured, bitter,
water-soluble, crystalline glycoside.

100. Uses:
1. Aloe and aloin are strong purgative and in higher doses may act as
abortifacient.
2. It used alone, aloe causes griping and is usually combined with
carminatives or antispasmodic like belladonna or hyoscyamus.
3. Ointment of aloe gel is used in sunburns, thermal burns, radiation
burns, and abrasion and skin irritation and prevents ulceration and
malignancy.
Commercial applications: Aloevera gel is found in many commercial
skin-care products, shampoos and conditioners while latex is a key
component of many commercial laxatives.
❑ It may be administered in the form of cachets, pills, or tablets, and is
frequently combined with extract of nuxvomica or strychnine,
ferroussulphate, myrrh, ipecacuanha, and extract of belladonna
❑ It is sometimes added to glycerin suppositories (1/2 of 1 grain in each).

101. BITTER ALMOND
Synonym : Amygdala amara
Biological source : Bitter almonds are dried ripe seeds of plants , prunus
amygdalus batsch var amara
Family : Rosaceae
Geographical source : Bitter almond trees are native of iran and asia
minor.
At present , they are extensively cultivated in sicily, italy, sapin, portugal,
south france, and morocco.
The bitter almond trees cannot be easily distinguished botanically , from
sweet almond trees (prunus communis).

102. Macroscopical characteristics of bitter almond
Colour : Brown
Odour : Odourless
Taste : Bitter
Size : About 20 mm in length, 1.25 mm in width and 10 mm in in
thickness
Shape : Flattened, oblong, ovoid in shape with markings on testa.
Chemical constituents:
❖ Bitter almonds contains about 40 to 50 percent of a bland fixed oil,
❖ 20 percent of proteins
❖ An enzyme emulsin and a colourless crystalline bitter glycoside
known as Amygdalin (1 to 3 percent).
❖ Bitter almonds also contain 0.5 percent of volatile oil.

103. USES
➔ Bitter almonds are used as sedative due to hydrocyanic
acid content.
➔ The oil is used in demulcent skin lotion.
➔ It is also used in the preparation of amygdalin, bitter
almond water, in perfumery and in the form of liquors.
➔ Bitter almond oil should not be used for flavouring of
foods.
Commercial applications: It is employed in the preparation
of amygdalin and bitter almond water.

104. Iridoids
❑ Iridoids are the generic term derived from the names iridomyrmecin,
iridolactone and iridodial.
❑ They isolated from the ant species iridomyrmex.
❑ In which they occurs as defensive secretion.
❑ The first plant iridoid is verbenalin, isolated from cornus woody plant.
❑ They are a large group of monoterpenoids, characterized by a six membered
ring, containing an oxygen atom, is fused to a cyclopentane ring (iridane
skeleton).
Other terpenoids
❖ Terpenoids are large group of organic compounds and classified in various
groups such as terpenes, diterpene and sesquiterpenes.
❖ They are derivatives of terpenes or modified terpenes.
❖ They have unsaturated molecules composed of linked isoprene units,
❖ Generally having formula (C5H8)n.

105. Naphthoquinones:
They are found in plants, microorganisms, and some animals.
Chemically Naphthoquinones are the class of organic compounds
derived from naphthalene.
Normally these exist in three isomeric forms.
I.e. 1,2-Napthoquinone,
1,4 –Napthoquinone,
2,6 -Napthoquinone,

106. GENTIAN
Synonym : Gentian root, gentiana.
Biological sources : Gentian is the dried partially fermented rhizome and root of
yellow gentian i.e Gentiana lutea.
Family : Gentianaceae
Geographical source : Gentian is a perennial herbaceous tree native to hilly
areas in southern and central europe like jura, vosges mountains and yugoslavia.
Macroscopical characters:
❖ Shape: Cylindrical, sometimes longitudinally split.
❖ Colour: Yellowish brown.
❖ Size: up to 30 cm length and 4 cm thick.
❖ Surface: Crowded leaf scars encircle
rhizome, whereas longitudinal wrinkles may be seen on the root
❖ Fracture: Short.
❖ Odour: Characteristic.
❖ Taste: Sweet to start with but later persistently bitter.

107. Chemical constituents:
❖ Bitter principle: Gentiopicrin, Amaragentin.
❖ Alkaloids: Gentianine.
❖ Xanthine derivatives: Gentisin, Gentioside.
❖ Sugar: Gentiobiose and gentianose.
❖ Gentisic acid.
❖ Tannins
❖ Pectin and calcium oxalate
Uses:
1. Bitter tonic.
2. Anorexia.
3. Dyspepsia.

108. Commercial applications:
❑ Average daily dose is 2-4 g of the drug.
❑ Gentian tea is infusion is also use to stimulate the
appetite.
❑ Gentian dry extract is given 2 capsules of 120 mg 2-3
times daily,.
❑ Gentian fluid extract is given 1g, 2-4 times daily.

109. ARTEMISIA
Synonyms : Santonica, worm seeds
Biological source : These are the unexposed flower - heads of artemisia
cina Berg, and other species of artemisia,
Family : Asteraceae
Geographical source : It is found growing wild in the kurran valley in
Pakistan, turkey and from kashmir to kumaon in Himalayas as well as, in
west Tibet , up to an altitude of 4000 metres. it is also found in Punjab ,
uttar pradesh and Haryana.
Macroscopic characteristics
Colour : Flowers are yellow in colour,
white other parts are whitish grey
Odour : Aromatic and sweet
Taste : Bitter and camphoraceous

110. Chemical constituents
❖ Santonica contains essential oil and crystalline substance i.e santonin and
artemisinin.
❖ The volatile oil content varies from 1.0 - 2 percent , while the percentage of
santonin is about 2.0 per cent .
❖ The volatile oil contains cineole, pinene and resin.
❖ The chief active constituent of the drug is santonin .
❖ Santonin is a sesquiterpene lactone which is anhydrate of santonic acid.
USES
❖ Santonica is used as a strong antihelmintic, especially for roundworm.
❖ It has less or no effect on hookworms and tapeworms.
❖ The crude drug, at present, is rarely used in therapeutic and has been totally
replaced by santonin.
Commercial applications: It is used in manfacture of white wine, helps in
insect repelling action, used in flavouring of spirits and wines etc.

111. TAXUS
Synonyms : Yew, talispatra, himalayan yew, birmi
Biological source : This consists of dried leaves, bark and roots of various species
of Taxus
Family : Taxaceae
Geographical source : It is very slow growing evergreen gymnospermous tree.
found in india, canada and america.it is reported in temperate himalayan region of
india upto an altitude of 2000 - 3500 meters.
Morphological characters:
Colour : Dark green
Taste : Bitter
Size : 1 - 3 cm x 1 - 2 cm
Shape : Lanceolate flat
Bark : Thin and scaly brown
Seed cones : Each contain one seed which is 4 - 7 mm surrounded by aril, arils get
matured after 6 - 9 months.

112. Chemical constituents
❖ The main constituent paclitaxel or taxol is present in all parts of of the plant
especially in leaves roots and barks
❖ Taxanes are the most important group of chemical constituents and uptil now
40 Different taxane compounds have been found, all of which are diterpenoid
structures.
❖ Presently it is mainly obtained from stem bark of T.brevifolia.
Uses
Used as anticancer, analgesic, anti inflammatory , antipyretic and anti coagulant.
The biological target of taxol is microtubules produced from ∝ and ß - tubulin.
The mirotubules are responsible for the formation of mitotic spindle necessary for
cell division.
Commercial application:
Paclitaxel is also availabel in a different form called paclitaxel albumin-stabilized
nanoparticle formulation.
Apart from that it is also available in injection form.

113. CAROTENOIDS
Carotenoids, also called tetraterpenoids, are organic
pigments that are produced by plants and algae, as well
as several bacteria and fungi. The only animals known
to produce carotenoids are aphids and spider mites,
which acquired the ability and genes from fungi.
❖ Carotenoids are composed of eight isoprene
units(C40 ).
❖ They are various colors usually yellow to red
pigments

114. ❖ Carotenoids are red, yellow and orange pigments that are widely
distributed in nature. they are especially abundant in yellow-orange
fruits and vegetables and dark green, leafy vegetables. more than
700 naturally occurring carotenoids identified.
❖ Carotenoids absorb light in the 400-500 nm region of the visible
spectrum. This physical property imparts the characteristic
red/yellow color of the pigments.
❖ Carotenoids contain a conjugated backbone composed of isoprene
units, which are usually inverted at the center of the molecule,
imparting symmetry. Changes in geometrical configuration about the
double bonds result in the existence of many cis and trans isomers.
❖ Hydroxylated, oxidized, hydrogenated or ring-containing
derivatives exist.

115. Hydrocarbon carotenoids are classified as carotenes while
those
containing oxygen are known as xanthophylls .
CLASSIFICATION
There are two general classes of carotenoids:
1.carotenes and 2.xanthophylls.
Carotenes consist only of carbon and hydrogen atoms; beta-
carotene
is the most common carotene.
Xanthophylls have one or more oxygen atoms; lutein is
one of the most common xanthophylls.

116. References:
Pharmacognosy And Phytochemistry –II by
Dr. KUNTAL DAS.
Pharmacognosy And Phytochemistry by C.K.
KOKATE.