The document provides information on the cultivation of papaya. It discusses the varieties of papaya suitable for different purposes, soil and climate requirements, planting methods, irrigation, fertilizer application, pest and disease management, harvesting, and yield. The key steps described are soil preparation, sowing, planting seedlings, pruning, irrigation, fertilizer application, management of pests and diseases, determining maturity, and harvesting. Papaya is considered an important crop due to its nutritional value and industrial uses such as extraction of the digestive enzyme papain.
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All about production technology of Papaya (Climate, soil, varieties, propagation, planting & spacing, nutrient management, irrigation and fertigation, training and pruning, intercultural operations, papain extraction, harvesting and yield, major diseases, major pests, major disorders)
BANANA – SOIL, CLIMATE, PLANTING, HIGH DENSITY PLANTING,
NUTRIENT AND WATER MANAGEMENT, INTER CULTURAL
SPECIAL OPERATIONS
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courtesy: open Source Study Material
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This presentation explores a brief idea about the structural and functional attributes of nucleotides, the structure and function of genetic materials along with the impact of UV rays and pH upon them.
A brief information about the SCOP protein database used in bioinformatics.
The Structural Classification of Proteins (SCOP) database is a comprehensive and authoritative resource for the structural and evolutionary relationships of proteins. It provides a detailed and curated classification of protein structures, grouping them into families, superfamilies, and folds based on their structural and sequence similarities.
Comparing Evolved Extractive Text Summary Scores of Bidirectional Encoder Rep...University of Maribor
Slides from:
11th International Conference on Electrical, Electronics and Computer Engineering (IcETRAN), Niš, 3-6 June 2024
Track: Artificial Intelligence
https://www.etran.rs/2024/en/home-english/
Multi-source connectivity as the driver of solar wind variability in the heli...Sérgio Sacani
The ambient solar wind that flls the heliosphere originates from multiple
sources in the solar corona and is highly structured. It is often described
as high-speed, relatively homogeneous, plasma streams from coronal
holes and slow-speed, highly variable, streams whose source regions are
under debate. A key goal of ESA/NASA’s Solar Orbiter mission is to identify
solar wind sources and understand what drives the complexity seen in the
heliosphere. By combining magnetic feld modelling and spectroscopic
techniques with high-resolution observations and measurements, we show
that the solar wind variability detected in situ by Solar Orbiter in March
2022 is driven by spatio-temporal changes in the magnetic connectivity to
multiple sources in the solar atmosphere. The magnetic feld footpoints
connected to the spacecraft moved from the boundaries of a coronal hole
to one active region (12961) and then across to another region (12957). This
is refected in the in situ measurements, which show the transition from fast
to highly Alfvénic then to slow solar wind that is disrupted by the arrival of
a coronal mass ejection. Our results describe solar wind variability at 0.5 au
but are applicable to near-Earth observatories.
Cancer cell metabolism: special Reference to Lactate PathwayAADYARAJPANDEY1
Normal Cell Metabolism:
Cellular respiration describes the series of steps that cells use to break down sugar and other chemicals to get the energy we need to function.
Energy is stored in the bonds of glucose and when glucose is broken down, much of that energy is released.
Cell utilize energy in the form of ATP.
The first step of respiration is called glycolysis. In a series of steps, glycolysis breaks glucose into two smaller molecules - a chemical called pyruvate. A small amount of ATP is formed during this process.
Most healthy cells continue the breakdown in a second process, called the Kreb's cycle. The Kreb's cycle allows cells to “burn” the pyruvates made in glycolysis to get more ATP.
The last step in the breakdown of glucose is called oxidative phosphorylation (Ox-Phos).
It takes place in specialized cell structures called mitochondria. This process produces a large amount of ATP. Importantly, cells need oxygen to complete oxidative phosphorylation.
If a cell completes only glycolysis, only 2 molecules of ATP are made per glucose. However, if the cell completes the entire respiration process (glycolysis - Kreb's - oxidative phosphorylation), about 36 molecules of ATP are created, giving it much more energy to use.
IN CANCER CELL:
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
Unlike healthy cells that "burn" the entire molecule of sugar to capture a large amount of energy as ATP, cancer cells are wasteful.
Cancer cells only partially break down sugar molecules. They overuse the first step of respiration, glycolysis. They frequently do not complete the second step, oxidative phosphorylation.
This results in only 2 molecules of ATP per each glucose molecule instead of the 36 or so ATPs healthy cells gain. As a result, cancer cells need to use a lot more sugar molecules to get enough energy to survive.
introduction to WARBERG PHENOMENA:
WARBURG EFFECT Usually, cancer cells are highly glycolytic (glucose addiction) and take up more glucose than do normal cells from outside.
Otto Heinrich Warburg (; 8 October 1883 – 1 August 1970) In 1931 was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology for his "discovery of the nature and mode of action of the respiratory enzyme.
WARNBURG EFFECT : cancer cells under aerobic (well-oxygenated) conditions to metabolize glucose to lactate (aerobic glycolysis) is known as the Warburg effect. Warburg made the observation that tumor slices consume glucose and secrete lactate at a higher rate than normal tissues.
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
Slide 1: Title Slide
Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Slide 2: Introduction to Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Definition: Extrachromosomal inheritance refers to the transmission of genetic material that is not found within the nucleus.
Key Components: Involves genes located in mitochondria, chloroplasts, and plasmids.
Slide 3: Mitochondrial Inheritance
Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for energy production.
Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in mitochondria.
Inheritance Pattern: Maternally inherited, meaning it is passed from mothers to all their offspring.
Diseases: Examples include Leber’s hereditary optic neuropathy (LHON) and mitochondrial myopathy.
Slide 4: Chloroplast Inheritance
Chloroplasts: Organelles responsible for photosynthesis in plants.
Chloroplast DNA (cpDNA): Circular DNA molecule found in chloroplasts.
Inheritance Pattern: Often maternally inherited in most plants, but can vary in some species.
Examples: Variegation in plants, where leaf color patterns are determined by chloroplast DNA.
Slide 5: Plasmid Inheritance
Plasmids: Small, circular DNA molecules found in bacteria and some eukaryotes.
Features: Can carry antibiotic resistance genes and can be transferred between cells through processes like conjugation.
Significance: Important in biotechnology for gene cloning and genetic engineering.
Slide 6: Mechanisms of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Non-Mendelian Patterns: Do not follow Mendel’s laws of inheritance.
Cytoplasmic Segregation: During cell division, organelles like mitochondria and chloroplasts are randomly distributed to daughter cells.
Heteroplasmy: Presence of more than one type of organellar genome within a cell, leading to variation in expression.
Slide 7: Examples of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Four O’clock Plant (Mirabilis jalapa): Shows variegated leaves due to different cpDNA in leaf cells.
Petite Mutants in Yeast: Result from mutations in mitochondrial DNA affecting respiration.
Slide 8: Importance of Extrachromosomal Inheritance
Evolution: Provides insight into the evolution of eukaryotic cells.
Medicine: Understanding mitochondrial inheritance helps in diagnosing and treating mitochondrial diseases.
Agriculture: Chloroplast inheritance can be used in plant breeding and genetic modification.
Slide 9: Recent Research and Advances
Gene Editing: Techniques like CRISPR-Cas9 are being used to edit mitochondrial and chloroplast DNA.
Therapies: Development of mitochondrial replacement therapy (MRT) for preventing mitochondrial diseases.
Slide 10: Conclusion
Summary: Extrachromosomal inheritance involves the transmission of genetic material outside the nucleus and plays a crucial role in genetics, medicine, and biotechnology.
Future Directions: Continued research and technological advancements hold promise for new treatments and applications.
Slide 11: Questions and Discussion
Invite Audience: Open the floor for any questions or further discussion on the topic.
Introduction:
RNA interference (RNAi) or Post-Transcriptional Gene Silencing (PTGS) is an important biological process for modulating eukaryotic gene expression.
It is highly conserved process of posttranscriptional gene silencing by which double stranded RNA (dsRNA) causes sequence-specific degradation of mRNA sequences.
dsRNA-induced gene silencing (RNAi) is reported in a wide range of eukaryotes ranging from worms, insects, mammals and plants.
This process mediates resistance to both endogenous parasitic and exogenous pathogenic nucleic acids, and regulates the expression of protein-coding genes.
What are small ncRNAs?
micro RNA (miRNA)
short interfering RNA (siRNA)
Properties of small non-coding RNA:
Involved in silencing mRNA transcripts.
Called “small” because they are usually only about 21-24 nucleotides long.
Synthesized by first cutting up longer precursor sequences (like the 61nt one that Lee discovered).
Silence an mRNA by base pairing with some sequence on the mRNA.
Discovery of siRNA?
The first small RNA:
In 1993 Rosalind Lee (Victor Ambros lab) was studying a non- coding gene in C. elegans, lin-4, that was involved in silencing of another gene, lin-14, at the appropriate time in the
development of the worm C. elegans.
Two small transcripts of lin-4 (22nt and 61nt) were found to be complementary to a sequence in the 3' UTR of lin-14.
Because lin-4 encoded no protein, she deduced that it must be these transcripts that are causing the silencing by RNA-RNA interactions.
Types of RNAi ( non coding RNA)
MiRNA
Length (23-25 nt)
Trans acting
Binds with target MRNA in mismatch
Translation inhibition
Si RNA
Length 21 nt.
Cis acting
Bind with target Mrna in perfect complementary sequence
Piwi-RNA
Length ; 25 to 36 nt.
Expressed in Germ Cells
Regulates trnasposomes activity
MECHANISM OF RNAI:
First the double-stranded RNA teams up with a protein complex named Dicer, which cuts the long RNA into short pieces.
Then another protein complex called RISC (RNA-induced silencing complex) discards one of the two RNA strands.
The RISC-docked, single-stranded RNA then pairs with the homologous mRNA and destroys it.
THE RISC COMPLEX:
RISC is large(>500kD) RNA multi- protein Binding complex which triggers MRNA degradation in response to MRNA
Unwinding of double stranded Si RNA by ATP independent Helicase
Active component of RISC is Ago proteins( ENDONUCLEASE) which cleave target MRNA.
DICER: endonuclease (RNase Family III)
Argonaute: Central Component of the RNA-Induced Silencing Complex (RISC)
One strand of the dsRNA produced by Dicer is retained in the RISC complex in association with Argonaute
ARGONAUTE PROTEIN :
1.PAZ(PIWI/Argonaute/ Zwille)- Recognition of target MRNA
2.PIWI (p-element induced wimpy Testis)- breaks Phosphodiester bond of mRNA.)RNAse H activity.
MiRNA:
The Double-stranded RNAs are naturally produced in eukaryotic cells during development, and they have a key role in regulating gene expression .
Professional air quality monitoring systems provide immediate, on-site data for analysis, compliance, and decision-making.
Monitor common gases, weather parameters, particulates.
4. SCIENTIFIC CLASSIFICATION:-
BINOMIAL NAME : Carica papaya
Kingdom Plantae
Division Magnoliophyta
Class Magnoliopsida
Order Brassicales
Family Caricaceae
Genus Carica
Species C. papaya
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5. Origin: Mexico and Central America.
Area, Production & Productivity of Papaya:
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1000 ha 1000 tonne Tonne/ha
9. Varieties:
Coorg Honey Dew, Pusa Dwarf, Pusa Giant, Pusa Majesty, Pusa Delicious, Pusa Dwarf,
Solo, Ranchi, Taiwan-785 and Taiwan-786
•CO 1, CO 2, CO 3, CO 4, CO 5, CO 6, CO 7, CO 8, Coorg Honey dew and Surya.
CO 3, CO 7 and Surya are highly suitable for table purpose and CO 2, CO 5 and CO 6 are
dual-purpose varieties for table and papain production.
Co-1 Co-3
Co-8
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10. Soil and climate:
•Well drained soils of uniform texture are highly preferable to avoid the collar rot disease.
•Soil temperatures below 15°C will limit growth.
•It is a tropical fruit and grows well in regions where summer temperature ranges from 35°C
- 38°C.
•Soil pH - 6.0 to 7.0
Sowing:
•500 g of seeds/ ha.
•June-September is the best season for planting.
•Avoid planting in rainy season.
•Sow seeds at 1cm depth.
Invigoration of old seeds:
Stored seeds can be invigorated by soaking them in dilute solution of disodium phosphate
for 4 hours followed by drying back to original moisture content.
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11. Irrigation:
•They will, however, give more and bigger fruit if they are watered every 2 weeks in the dry
season. The flowers will drop if they do not get enough water.
•To avoid waterlogging in clay soil, make a ridge and plant the papayas on the ridge.
•The maximum water requirement is about 160 L/tree/week for under-tree minisprinklers
(also known as microsprinklers) and 50 L/tree/week for drippers or driplines.
•Overhead irrigation is not recommended.
•Papayas can be damaged by salty water.
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12. Nursery:
•Treat the seeds with Captan @ 2 g/kg of seeds.
•Dibble four seeds in polythene bags in depth not exceeding one cm. Keep the polythene
bags in partial shade.
•Watering can be done with the help of rose can. Seedlings will be ready in about 60 days.
Planting:
•Dig a hole about twice the size of the bag in which the young tree is growing.
•Remove the soil from the hole and add some compost and manure. Mix this with some of
the soil that has been dug out.
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13. •Take the plant out of the container. If it is a plastic container you just cut it open at the side.
•Do not disturb the roots.
•Place the tree in the centre of the hole. When you fill up the hole hold the tree so that its
base is level with the surrounding ground.
•Raise the soil around the tree to dam the water (rain or irrigation).
•Do not plant the tree deeper than it was in the container.
•Do not cover the stem with soil because it will rot.
•Plant the seedlings at 1.8 m either ways in pits of 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm size.
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14. Fertigation technique:
•Apply 10 litres of water + 13.5 g urea and 10.5 g murate of potash/ week through drip
irrigation and soil application of super phosphate 300g per plant at bimonthly intervals
starting from 3-4 months after planting immediately after thinning of plants is recommended.
Application of fertilizers:
•Apply FYM 10 Kg/plant as basal and 50 g in each of N, P and K per plant at bi-monthly
intervals from the third month of planting.
•Apply 20 g in each of Azospirillum and Phosphobacterium at planting again six months after
planting.
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15. After cultivation:
•Male trees should be removed after the emergence of inflorescence maintaining one male
tree for every 20 female trees for proper fruit set.
•In each pit only one vigorously growing female/hermaphrodite tree should be retained and
other plants should be removed.
•In gynodioecious type like (Co 3 & Co 7) keep one hermaphrodite type/pit and remove
female trees.
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16. Micronutrients:
•Spray ZnSO4 0.5% + H2BO3 0.1% during 4th and 8th month to increase growth and yield
characters.
Crop duration: 24 – 30 months.
Maturity Signs of Papaya:
1. Fruits require 125 to 140 days from flowering to maturity.
2. Colour of fruit changes from green to pale green or yellowish.
3. Portion of fruit exposed to sunlight becomes dark yellow in colour.
4. The latex of fruits becomes watery.
5. T.S.S at harvest should be minimum 6%.
.
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17. Papaya Diseases & its Control:
1. Powdery Mildew (Odium caricae)
•As soon as the disease symptoms are observed dusting Sulphur
(30 g/10 litres of water) or spraying Calixin 75 EC (5 ml/10 litres
of water) at 15 days interval helps to control the disease.
2. Damping-Off seedling (Rhizoctonia solani)
•Well-drained soil should be used for planting and the crop
should not be excessively irrigated.
•Before sowing the seeds should be treated with fungal culture
of Trichoderma viride (3-4 g/kg of seed) or Captan (3 g/kg of
seed) to protect the newly emerging seedlings.
3. Foot Rot of Papaya (Pythium aphanidermatum)
•The soil should be drenched with 2-3 litres of Copper
Oxychloride (3 g per litre of water).
•Mancozeb (2.5 g/ litre of water), or Bordeaux paste should be
applied.
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18. 4. Anthracnose (Colletotrichum gloeosporioides)
•Spaying with Copper Oxychloride (3 g/litre of water) or
Carbendazim (1 g/litre of water) or Thiophanate Methyl (1
g/litre of water) at 15 days interval effectively controls the
disease.
5. Leaf Curl of Papaya:
•Checking the population of white flies also can reduce the
infection severity.
•Soilapplication of Carbofuran (1 kg a.i./ha) at the time of
sowing and 4-5 foliar sprays of Dimethoate (0.05%) or
Metasystox (0.02%) at an interval of 10 days effectively
controls the whitefly population.
6. Papaya Ring Spot Virus:
•Aphids can be controlled by application of
Carbofuran (1 kg a.i./ha) in the nursery bed at
the time of sowing seeds followed by 2-3 foliar
sprays of Phosphamidon (0.05%) at an interval
of 10 days starting from 15-20 days after
sowing.
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20. Harvesting of Papaya:
•It is harvested by twisting the fruit on dwarf
trees, the operation can be done without
mechanical aids.
•Ladders are often used to harvest tall trees.
•Poles should never be used for harvesting.
Yield:
•CO2: 200-250t/ha
•CO3: 100-120t/ha
•CO5: 200-250t/ha
•CO6: 120-160t/ha
•CO7: 200-225t/ha
•CO8: 220- 230 t/ha
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21. Conclusion:
•Papaya is considered one of the most important fruits because it is a rich source of
antioxidant nutrients (e.g., carotenes, vitamin C, and flavonoids), the B vitamins, minerals
(e.g., potassium and magnesium), and fiber.
•In addition, papaya is a source of the digestive enzyme papain, which is used as an
industrial ingredient in brewing, meat tenderizing, pharmaceuticals, beauty products, and
cosmetics.
•Production in India has increased significantly within the last few years, and is chiefly
responsible for the noticeable growth in global papaya production.
•Factors such as fungal diseases, physiological disorders, mechanical damage, or a
combination of these are the leading causes of post-harvest losses.
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