Acids are divided into two categories based on the ease with which they can donate protons to the solvent: i) strong acids and ii) weak acids
Strong acids are acids that completely dissociate in water. The reaction of an acid with its solvent (typically H2O) is called an acid dissociation reaction.
Weak acids are acids that dissociate partially in water. The extent of dissociation is given by the equilibrium constant.
Note:
A measure of the relative strength of an acid is: i) the equilibrium constant ka of the dissociation reaction of the acid in water (depends on temperature) ii) the degree of dissociation α of the acid in water (depends on the concentration of the acid an on temperature).
Classification Of Mechanisms, Ligand Substitution In Octahedral Complexes Without Breaking Metal-ligand Bond, Substitution Reaction In Square Planar Complexes, Factors Which Affect The Rate Of Substitution, Trans Effect (Labilizing Effect), Theories and applications Of Trans Effect
Acids are divided into two categories based on the ease with which they can donate protons to the solvent: i) strong acids and ii) weak acids
Strong acids are acids that completely dissociate in water. The reaction of an acid with its solvent (typically H2O) is called an acid dissociation reaction.
Weak acids are acids that dissociate partially in water. The extent of dissociation is given by the equilibrium constant.
Note:
A measure of the relative strength of an acid is: i) the equilibrium constant ka of the dissociation reaction of the acid in water (depends on temperature) ii) the degree of dissociation α of the acid in water (depends on the concentration of the acid an on temperature).
Classification Of Mechanisms, Ligand Substitution In Octahedral Complexes Without Breaking Metal-ligand Bond, Substitution Reaction In Square Planar Complexes, Factors Which Affect The Rate Of Substitution, Trans Effect (Labilizing Effect), Theories and applications Of Trans Effect
Alkenes are a class of hydrocarbons (e.g, containing only carbon and hydrogen) unsaturated compounds with at least one carbon-to-carbon double bond. Another term used to describe alkenes is olefins. Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes due to the presence of the double bond.
Much evidence suggest that there are three distinct phases of copper in copper-containing enzymes, i. e., blue Cu (II), nonblue Cu (II), and diamagnetic Cu (II) -Cn (II) pair. The relation between the chemical state and biological function of the copper is discussed (Adilakshmi et al., 2002). Likewise, X-ray crystallographic analyses of the iron-encompassing electron carrier proteins, iron-sulfur proteins, reveal that there are three principal types of Fe-S clusters, namely, 1 Fe, 2 Fe-2S, and 4 Fe-4 S per center. Some of these clusters are typically involved in various enzymes, such as xanthine oxidase, nitrogenase systems, hydrogenase, mitochondrial electron transport systems and so forth. In oxygenases too, iron and copper are the much key cofactors; most of dioxy genases as well as some of monooxy genases contain either iron or copper(Mei et al.,1997).Cooper is an important and essential nutrient to be added to the diet(Sreeremya,2018).
This is the Power Point Presentation for "Electrophilic Addition to Alkenes". This is as per syllabus of University of Mumbai for S.Y. B. Pharmacy students.
It includes reaction and it's mechanism and also applications. It contains stereochemistry of hydroboration . It also contains many exambles about hydroboration.
HSAB concept is an initialism for "hard and soft (Lewis) acids and bases". Also known as the Pearson acid-base concept, HSAB is widely used in chemistry for explaining stability of compounds, reaction mechanisms and pathways.
An organic species which has a carbon atom bearing only six electrons in its outermost shell and has a positive charge is called carbocation.
The positively charged carbon of carbocation is sp2 hybridized.
The unhybridized p-orbital remains vacant.
They are highly reactive and act as reaction intermediate.
They are also called carbonium ion.
Introductory PPT on Metal Carbonyls having its' classification,structure and applications.This is a basic level PPT specially prepared for UG/PG Chemistry students.
Alkenes are a class of hydrocarbons (e.g, containing only carbon and hydrogen) unsaturated compounds with at least one carbon-to-carbon double bond. Another term used to describe alkenes is olefins. Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes due to the presence of the double bond.
Much evidence suggest that there are three distinct phases of copper in copper-containing enzymes, i. e., blue Cu (II), nonblue Cu (II), and diamagnetic Cu (II) -Cn (II) pair. The relation between the chemical state and biological function of the copper is discussed (Adilakshmi et al., 2002). Likewise, X-ray crystallographic analyses of the iron-encompassing electron carrier proteins, iron-sulfur proteins, reveal that there are three principal types of Fe-S clusters, namely, 1 Fe, 2 Fe-2S, and 4 Fe-4 S per center. Some of these clusters are typically involved in various enzymes, such as xanthine oxidase, nitrogenase systems, hydrogenase, mitochondrial electron transport systems and so forth. In oxygenases too, iron and copper are the much key cofactors; most of dioxy genases as well as some of monooxy genases contain either iron or copper(Mei et al.,1997).Cooper is an important and essential nutrient to be added to the diet(Sreeremya,2018).
This is the Power Point Presentation for "Electrophilic Addition to Alkenes". This is as per syllabus of University of Mumbai for S.Y. B. Pharmacy students.
It includes reaction and it's mechanism and also applications. It contains stereochemistry of hydroboration . It also contains many exambles about hydroboration.
HSAB concept is an initialism for "hard and soft (Lewis) acids and bases". Also known as the Pearson acid-base concept, HSAB is widely used in chemistry for explaining stability of compounds, reaction mechanisms and pathways.
An organic species which has a carbon atom bearing only six electrons in its outermost shell and has a positive charge is called carbocation.
The positively charged carbon of carbocation is sp2 hybridized.
The unhybridized p-orbital remains vacant.
They are highly reactive and act as reaction intermediate.
They are also called carbonium ion.
Introductory PPT on Metal Carbonyls having its' classification,structure and applications.This is a basic level PPT specially prepared for UG/PG Chemistry students.
Acids and bases buffers ARRHENIUS CONCEPT
THE LEWIS CONCEPT-THE ELECTRON DONOR ACCEPTOR SYSTEM
BRONSTED-LOWRY CONCEPT (PROTON TRANSFER
THEORY
buffer action
ph scale
buffer capacity
acid base balance
isotonicity method
isotonic soltions
buffer solutions in pharmaceutical preparations
Earliest Galaxies in the JADES Origins Field: Luminosity Function and Cosmic ...Sérgio Sacani
We characterize the earliest galaxy population in the JADES Origins Field (JOF), the deepest
imaging field observed with JWST. We make use of the ancillary Hubble optical images (5 filters
spanning 0.4−0.9µm) and novel JWST images with 14 filters spanning 0.8−5µm, including 7 mediumband filters, and reaching total exposure times of up to 46 hours per filter. We combine all our data
at > 2.3µm to construct an ultradeep image, reaching as deep as ≈ 31.4 AB mag in the stack and
30.3-31.0 AB mag (5σ, r = 0.1” circular aperture) in individual filters. We measure photometric
redshifts and use robust selection criteria to identify a sample of eight galaxy candidates at redshifts
z = 11.5 − 15. These objects show compact half-light radii of R1/2 ∼ 50 − 200pc, stellar masses of
M⋆ ∼ 107−108M⊙, and star-formation rates of SFR ∼ 0.1−1 M⊙ yr−1
. Our search finds no candidates
at 15 < z < 20, placing upper limits at these redshifts. We develop a forward modeling approach to
infer the properties of the evolving luminosity function without binning in redshift or luminosity that
marginalizes over the photometric redshift uncertainty of our candidate galaxies and incorporates the
impact of non-detections. We find a z = 12 luminosity function in good agreement with prior results,
and that the luminosity function normalization and UV luminosity density decline by a factor of ∼ 2.5
from z = 12 to z = 14. We discuss the possible implications of our results in the context of theoretical
models for evolution of the dark matter halo mass function.
(May 29th, 2024) Advancements in Intravital Microscopy- Insights for Preclini...Scintica Instrumentation
Intravital microscopy (IVM) is a powerful tool utilized to study cellular behavior over time and space in vivo. Much of our understanding of cell biology has been accomplished using various in vitro and ex vivo methods; however, these studies do not necessarily reflect the natural dynamics of biological processes. Unlike traditional cell culture or fixed tissue imaging, IVM allows for the ultra-fast high-resolution imaging of cellular processes over time and space and were studied in its natural environment. Real-time visualization of biological processes in the context of an intact organism helps maintain physiological relevance and provide insights into the progression of disease, response to treatments or developmental processes.
In this webinar we give an overview of advanced applications of the IVM system in preclinical research. IVIM technology is a provider of all-in-one intravital microscopy systems and solutions optimized for in vivo imaging of live animal models at sub-micron resolution. The system’s unique features and user-friendly software enables researchers to probe fast dynamic biological processes such as immune cell tracking, cell-cell interaction as well as vascularization and tumor metastasis with exceptional detail. This webinar will also give an overview of IVM being utilized in drug development, offering a view into the intricate interaction between drugs/nanoparticles and tissues in vivo and allows for the evaluation of therapeutic intervention in a variety of tissues and organs. This interdisciplinary collaboration continues to drive the advancements of novel therapeutic strategies.
Nutraceutical market, scope and growth: Herbal drug technologyLokesh Patil
As consumer awareness of health and wellness rises, the nutraceutical market—which includes goods like functional meals, drinks, and dietary supplements that provide health advantages beyond basic nutrition—is growing significantly. As healthcare expenses rise, the population ages, and people want natural and preventative health solutions more and more, this industry is increasing quickly. Further driving market expansion are product formulation innovations and the use of cutting-edge technology for customized nutrition. With its worldwide reach, the nutraceutical industry is expected to keep growing and provide significant chances for research and investment in a number of categories, including vitamins, minerals, probiotics, and herbal supplements.
Richard's entangled aventures in wonderlandRichard Gill
Since the loophole-free Bell experiments of 2020 and the Nobel prizes in physics of 2022, critics of Bell's work have retreated to the fortress of super-determinism. Now, super-determinism is a derogatory word - it just means "determinism". Palmer, Hance and Hossenfelder argue that quantum mechanics and determinism are not incompatible, using a sophisticated mathematical construction based on a subtle thinning of allowed states and measurements in quantum mechanics, such that what is left appears to make Bell's argument fail, without altering the empirical predictions of quantum mechanics. I think however that it is a smoke screen, and the slogan "lost in math" comes to my mind. I will discuss some other recent disproofs of Bell's theorem using the language of causality based on causal graphs. Causal thinking is also central to law and justice. I will mention surprising connections to my work on serial killer nurse cases, in particular the Dutch case of Lucia de Berk and the current UK case of Lucy Letby.
This pdf is about the Schizophrenia.
For more details visit on YouTube; @SELF-EXPLANATORY;
https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCAiarMZDNhe1A3Rnpr_WkzA/videos
Thanks...!
Seminar of U.V. Spectroscopy by SAMIR PANDASAMIR PANDA
Spectroscopy is a branch of science dealing the study of interaction of electromagnetic radiation with matter.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflect spectroscopy in the UV-VIS spectral region.
Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy is an analytical method that can measure the amount of light received by the analyte.
1. • An organic acid is an organic compound with acidic properties. The most common
organic acids are the carboxylic acids, whose acidity is associated with their
carboxyl group –COOH. ... The relative stability of the conjugate base of the acid
determines its acidity.
• An organic base is an organic compound which acts as a base. Organic bases are
usually, but not always, proton acceptors. They usually contain nitrogen atoms,
which can easily be protonated, for example amines have a lone pair of electrons
on the nitrogen atom and can thus act as proton acceptors.
• According to Arrhenius acids are the substances that produce hydrogen ions (H+)
when they dissolve in water .Because acids produce ions in water ,they are also
electrolyte. Bases are the substances that produce (OH-) ions when they dissolve in
water.
ORGANIC ACID AND BASES
3. BRONSTED –LOWRY ACIDS AND BASES
• Bronsted –lowry acid can donate a hydrogen ion ,(H+) and Bronsted – lowry
base can accept a hydrogen ion.
• CONJUGATE ACID –BASE PAIR : A conjugate acid – base pair consists
of molecules or ions related by loss of one H+ by an acid and gain of one H+
by a base .Every acid – base reaction contains 2 conjugate acid- base pairs
because an H+ is transferred in both the forward and reverse directions.
• HF(aq) + H2O(l) F(aq) + H3O (aq)
4. STRENGTHS OF ACID AND BASES
• In the process called as dissociation , an acid or a base separates into ions in water.
The strength of an acid is determined by moles oh hydronium ion produced for
each mole of acid that dissociates .The strength of base is determined by moles of
OH- that are produced for each mole of base that dissolves .
• STRONG AND WEAK ACIDS : Strong acids are examples for strong electrolytes
because they donate H + easily that their dissociation in water is essentially
complete.( EX; HCl).
• Weak acids are weak electrolytes because they dissociate slightly in water forming
only a small amount of hydronium ions .A weak acid has a strong conjugate base
,which is why the reverse reaction is more prevalent.(Acetic acid)
• CH3COOH(Aq) + H2O(l) C2H3O2
-
(aq) + H3O+
(aq)
• (Acetic acid ) (acetate ion)
5. STRONG AND WEAK BASE
• Strong base dissociates completely in water because these strong bases
asre ionic compounds ,they dissociate in water to give an aqueous solution
of metal ions and hydroxide ions.
• KOH(S) + H2O K+
(aq) + OH-
(aq)
• Weak base are weak electrolytes that are poor acceptors of hydrogen ions
and produce very few ions in solution .A typical example for weak base ,
ammonia NH3 , in aqueous solution , only a few ammonia molecules
accept hydrogen ions to form NH4
+ and OH- .
• NH3 (g) + H2O(l) NH4
+
(aq) + OH-
(aq)
• (Ammonia ) ( Ammonium)
6. DISSOCIATION CONSTANTS FOR ACIDS AND BASES
• Strong acids dissociate completely in water and the reaction is not considered to
be an equilibrium situation ,whereas weak base partially dissociates in water and
the ionic product reach equilibrium with the undissociated weak acid molecules.
• HCHO2(aq) + H2O(aq) H3O +
(aq) + CHO2
-
(aq)
• (formic acid ) (formate ion )
• Ka = [H3O+] [CHO-
2 ]
• [HCHO2]
• = 1.8 × 10-4
• The dissociation constant for formic acid is small, which confirms that the
equilibrium mixture of formic acid contains only small amounts of the products .
7. EFFECT OF SOLVENT ON ACID AND BASE STRENGTH
• LEVELING EFFECT :Leveling effect or solvent leveling refers to the effect
of solvent on the properties of acids and bases. The strength of a strong acid is
limited ("leveled") by the basicity of the solvent. Similarly the strength of a strong
base is leveled by the acidity of the solvent. When a strong acid is dissolved in
water, it reacts with it to form hydronium ion (H3O+).[2]
• Any acid that is stronger than H3O+ reacts with H2O to form H3O+. Therefore, no
acid stronger than H3O+ exists in H2O.The strongest base in water is OH.
• A weakly basic solvent has less tendency than a strongly basic one to accept
a proton. Similarly a weak acid has less tendency to donate protons than a strong
acid. As a result, a strong acid such as perchloric acid exhibits more strongly acidic
properties than a weak acid such as acetic acid when dissolved in a weakly basic
solvent. On the other hand, all acids tend to become indistinguishable in strength
when dissolved in strongly basic solvents owing to the greater affinity of strong
bases for protons.
8. HCl(g) + H2O H 3 O(aq)
+ + Cl-
(aq) (1)
CH3COOH + H2 O H3 O+ + CH3COO- (2)
CH3COOH + NH3 NH4 + CH3COO- (3)
• In the first reaction the HCl is strong acid and water is a weak base and
HCl readily gives proton to the leading to formation of hydronium ion and
here the dissociation is said to be complete . Hydronium ion formed levels
the acidic strength of HCl and water is said to be leveling solvent .
• In the second reaction Acetic acid being a weak acid has less tendency to
donate a proton and water being a weak base has tendency to accept the
proton so partial dissociation takes place ,hence water here is called as
Differentiating solvent .
9. In third reaction
• Acetic acid being weak acid has less tendency to donate a proton whereas
ammonia pulls the protons from the acetic acid and hence called leveling
solvent.
• Due to this acetic acid is a strong acid in liq . Ammonia and a weak acid in water.
• HF in water partially dissociates so water here is called as differentiating solvent
,whereas HF completely dissociates in liq. Ammonia so here ammonia is calles as
levelling solvent.
• Acetic acid acts as leveling solvents for bases and differentiating solvents for for
mineral acid.
10. Types of solvent on the basis of proton interaction
• (i) Protophilic solvents: Solvents which have greater tendency to accept
protons, i.e., water, alcohol, liquid ammonia, etc.
• (ii) Protogenic solvents: Solvents which have the tendency to produce
protons, i.e., water, liquid hydrogen chloride, glacial acetic acid, etc.
• (iii) Amphiprotic solvents: Solvents which act both as protophilic or
protogenic, e.g., water, ammonia, ethyl alcohol, etc.
• (iv) Aprotic solvents: Solvents which neither donate nor accept protons,
e.g., benzene, carbon tetrachloride, carbon disulphide, etc.
11. EFFECT OF STRUCTURE OF ORGANIC COMPOUND ON
ACID AND BASE STRENGTH
• Bond Strengths
• In general, the stronger the A–H or B–H+ bond, the less likely the bond is
to break to form H+ ions and thus the less acidic the substance. This effect
can be illustrated using the hydrogen halides:
• The trend in bond energies is due to a steady decrease in overlap between
the 1s orbital of hydrogen and the valence orbital of the halogen atom as
the size of the halogen increases. The larger the atom to which H is
bonded, the weaker the bond.
12. Stability of the Conjugate Base
• Whether we write an acid–base reaction as AH ⇌ A- + H+ or as BH ⇌B +
H+, the conjugate base (A- or B) contains one more lone pair of electrons
than the parent acid (AH or BH+). Any factor that stabilizes the lone pair on
the conjugate base favors dissociation of H+ and makes the parent acid a
stronger acid
• Inductive Effects
• Atoms or groups of atoms in a molecule other than those to
which H is bonded can induce a change in the distribution of
electrons within the molecule. This is called an inductive
effect, and, much like the coordination of water to a metal
ion, it can have a major effect on the acidity or basicity of the
molecule. For example, the hypohalous acids (general formula
HOX, with X representing a halogen) all have a hydrogen atom
bonded to an oxygen atom.
13. HOX(aq) H(aq)
+ + OX-
(aq)
• As the electronegativity of X increases, the distribution of electron
density within the molecule changes: the electrons are drawn more
strongly toward the halogen atom and, in turn, away from the H in the O–
H bond, thus weakening the O–H bond and allowing dissociation of
hydrogen as H+ .
• Acidity increases with increase in oxygen atoms. Because oxygen is the
second most electronegative element, adding terminal oxygen atoms
causes electrons to be drawn away from the O–H bond, making it weaker
and thereby increasing the strength of the acid.
14. pKa for acids
• The pKa value is one method used to indicate the strength of an acid. pKa is the
negative log of the acid dissociation constant or Ka value. A lower pKa value
indicates a stronger acid. That is, the lower value indicates the acid more fully
dissociates in water.
• pKb for base : pKb is the negative base-10 logarithm of the base dissociation
constant (Kb) of a solution. It is used to determine the strength of a base or alkaline
solution. pKb = -log10Kb.
• A large Kb value indicates the high level of dissociation of a strong base. A lower
pKb value indicates a stronger base. pKa and pKb are related by the simple
relation: pKa + pKb = 14.