This document provides an overview of various carbon-based reaction intermediates including carbocations, carbanions, carbenes, free radicals, nitrenes, and nitrenium ions. It discusses their generation, structure, stability, reactions, and detection methods. Key points include that carbocations are positively charged carbon species that react as electrophiles, while carbanions are negatively charged carbon species that react as nucleophiles. Carbenes contain a carbon with six valence electrons in a triplet or singlet state. Free radicals contain one or more unpaired electrons. Nitrenes and nitrenium ions involve a reactive nitrogen species. Detection methods include NMR, EPR, UV-Vis spectroscopy, and trapping reactions.

1. UNDER THE GUIDENCE OF:
Prof.Dr. K.MADHAVI
M.Pharm.,Ph.D
Dept.of Pharmaceutical chemistry
PRESENTED BY:
S.SAISWATHIVARMA
M PHARMACY
(2015MPH40005)
Dept.of pharmaceutical chemistry
SPMVV- TIRUPATHI

2.  Introduction of reactions intermediate
 Generations and fate of reactions and their
stability of
Carbocations
Carboanions
Carbenes
Free Radicals
Nitrenes
Nitrenium ions
 References

3. A reaction intermediate or an intermediate molecular entity (atom, ion,
molecule..) with a lifetime appreciably longer than a molecular vibration
that is formed (directly or in directly) from the reactants and reacts
further to give (either directly or indirectly) the products of a chemical
reaction.
Main carbon reactive intermediates:
Carbocations and their stabilized equivalents such as
oxonium ions.
Carbanions and their stabilized equivalents such as
enolates.
Carbenes
Free radicals
Nitrenes and
 Nitrenium ions.
REACTION INTERMEDIATES

4. A carbocation is an ion with a positively-charged
carbon atom.
Carbenium ion (trivalent
positive species) CH3, C2H5
Carbonium ion (pentavalent
positive species,non classical
carbocation)
Carbocation

5. : PLANAR SP2
HYBRID

8. O
R
R
H
+
C
+
OH
R
R
+
CH2 CH2 + H
+
CH3 CH2
+
O
RR + CH3 F BF3
O
+
CH3
R
R
+ BF4
_
R R O
CH3
++
By the addition of a cation to a neutral molecule.

9. R X R X+
solvolysis + -
X O
-
O
CH3
N
+
O
-
O
O
O
-
CH3 S
O
O
-
F
F
F
O
O
-
acetate
p - nitro benzene
tosylate
trifluoroacetate
V. By the heterolytic fission of a C-heteroatom bond.

10. Vi. By the heterolysis fission of a C- heteroatom bond to form
onium salt
R X R AgX+
+Ag+
X Cl, Br and I
R OH + H
+
R O
+
H
H R + H2O
+
R O R1+ H
+
R O
+
H
R1 R +
+
OHR1
R NH2 + H
+
R N
+
H
H
H
R + NH3
+
R SH + H
+
R S
+
H
H R + SH2
+
Onium salt Carbocation

11. R N2
+
R
+
N2+
•By the heterolysis of alkyl diazonium salt
R R R R R R
R R
+ +
-e
-e
+
.
.
.
+
•By the removal of an electron from a neutral molecule or a free radical

12.  R+
cation act as an electrophile to react with nucleophiles. For
Eg;
R+ + Nu-
R Nu
 Some carbocations act as Bronsted acid to lose a proton . For
Eg;
H
C
+
H
R
R
R R
R R
R
H
+
+

13.  1º or 2º-carbocation often undergo Wagner –Meerwein
rearrangement by an anionotropic 1,2- shift of a hydride or an
alkyl anion. For Eg;
R C
+
H
HH
R
- H-
R C
+
R
CH3
R C
+
R
R
R
H
-R-
R
C
+
R
R
R

14.  Internal alkylation of a C=C bond sometimes may take place
with a carbocation.
 Fragmentation of carbon chain of carbocation is also known.
 Carbocations can be reduced to a free radical or carboanions by
cathodic reduction.
R R R
+
_ .+2e +e
R
CH2
+
R CH2
+
+ CH2 CH2
C
+
CH3
CH3
CH3CH3 C
+
CH3
CH3
CH3CH3

16.  The most stable of all alkyl cations is the tert-butyl cation.
 Methane, ethane, and propane, treated with superacid, also
yield tert-butyl cation as the main product.
: The electron-donating effect of alkyl groups
increases the electron density at the charge-bearing carbon,
reducing the net charge on the carbon, and in effect spreading
the charge over the α carbons.
CH3
+
CH3 CH2
+
CH
+
CH3CH3 C
+
CH3CH3
CH3+I effect

17. : Tertiary carbocations are more stable (and
form more readily) than secondary carbocations; primary
carbocations are highly unstable because, while ionized higher
order carbons are stabilized by hyperconjugation, unsubstituted
(primary) carbons are not.
CH3
+
CH2
+
H
H
H CH
+
H
H
H
H
H
H C
+
H
H
HH
H
H
H H
H
NONE Three for 3C-H
bonds
Six for 6C-H bonds Nine for 9C-H bonds

18.  +R groups stabilize the carbocations. For eg;
 Some carbocations are stabilized due to aromatization. For eg;
CH3 O CH2
+
CH3 O
+
CH2
CH2
+
CH
+
CH2
CH
+
CH2
CH
+
CH2 CH2
+
R
CH2
+
R CH
+
CH2
CH2
+
CH2
+
CH2
+
+
Cyclopropenyl cation is stable due to aromatization

19.  Allyl cation and benzyl cation are more stable than most
othercarbocations.
 Molecules which can form allyl or benzyl carbocations are
especially reactive. Stable allylic cations have been obtained by
the reaction between alkylhalides,alcohols, or alkenes (by
hydride extraction) and SbF5 in SO2 or SO2ClF.

20. Formation of carbocation can be
detected by NMR spectroscopy as the cation formation shifts
the proton signals appreciably downfield due to deshielding of
protons. For example;
F
CH3
CH3
CH3
SbF5
C
+
CH3
CH3
CH3 SbF6
-

21.  A carbanion is an anion in which carbon has an unshared
pair of electrons and bears a negative charge usually with
three substituents for a total of eight valence electrons.
 Formally a carbanion is the conjugate base of a carbon acid.
 Stable carbanions do however exist although in most cases they
are reactive.
 Olmstead(1984):

22.  A group attached to a carbon leaves without its electron pair.
 A negative ion adds to a carbon-carbon double or triple bond.

23.  Strongly reduced metals like Na or Li or Mg can convert alkyl
halide to alkyl sodium or alkyl lithium or Grignard reagent.
 Carboanions often act as a nucleophiles to react with
electrophones species.
R Cl
R Cl
+
+
Li Li R Li Li Cl+
Mg
2+ Mg
ClR
+ +R CH3 Cl R CH3
Cl
--
R CH2
-
O
+ Br Br R
O
Br + Br
-

24.  In rare cases ,the carboanions may undergo cationotropic 1,2-
shift to give rearranged products, for eg;
 The carboanions may be oxidized to free radicals. For eg;
N
+
CH2
-
Ph
Ph
Ph
-Ph+
Ph
N
Ph
Ph
CH2
CH2
- + O O
CH2
CH2
+ O2
. -

25.  The stability of the carbanion is directly related to the strength
of the conjugate acid.
 The weaker is the acid, the greater is the base strength and the
lower is the stability of the carbanion.
 Stabilization by sulfur or phosphorus.

26.  Ylides are more stable than the corresponding simple
carbanions.
 Carbanions are stabilized by a field effect if there is any
heteroatom (O, N or S) connected to the carbanionic carbon,
provided that the hetero atom bears a positive charge in at least
one important canonical form
O
C
-
R
R
CH3
O
-
R
R
CH3

28.  The inductive effect: Electronegative atoms adjacent to the
charge will stabilize the charge;
 Hybridization of the charge-bearing atom. The greater the
of the charge-bearing atom, the more stable the
anion;
 The extent of conjugation of the anion. Resonance effects can
stabilize the anion. This is especially true when the anion is
stabilized as a result of aromaticity

29.  Carboanions are type of CH3
-
, where the negative charge is not
delocalized, due to conjugation can be distinguished from their
1H NMR spectra.
 Formation of carbanions can be detected by the UV and Visible
spectra of the different from the starting compounds.
 Trapping of carboanions with an electrophile may also show
their formation of reaction.

30.  A carbene is a highly reactive species containing a carbon atom
with six valence electrons and having the general formula
RR′C:, practically all having lifetimes considerably under 1
sec.
 Structure and bonding
the total spin=0
Bond angle=102º
For single
Methylene
the total spin=1
Paramagnetic ,may be observed by
electron spin resonance spectroscopy

31.  Triplet carbenes are generally stable in the gaseous state, while
singlet carbenes occur more often in aqueous media.
 The C-atom in singlet carbene is sp2 - hybridized in which the
spin –paired electrons occupy an sp2 orbital.
 Shape of carbenes is planar.

32.  Disintegration of diazoalkanes and their analogs, via
photolytic,thermal, or transition metal (Rh, Cu)-catalyzed
routes.

33.  Base-induced elimination
 Carbenes are intermediates in the Wolff rearrangement.

34.  Carbenes being the electrons-deficient species may take part in
electrophilic aromatic substitution reactions. For eg; in Riemer
–Tiemann reaction.

35.  Electron paramagnetic resonance spectroscopy(EPRS) can be
used to detect the formation of the triplet carbenes.
 Rotational fine structure of the UV and Visible spectra can
detect the formation of the singlet (bent form) or triplet (linear
form) carbenes.
 π- Insertion reaction also can detect and distinguish the
formation of singlet and triplet.

36.  A free radical may be defined as a species that contains one or
more unpaired electrons.
 Radicals play an important role in combustion, atmospheric
chemistry, polymerization, plasma chemistry, biochemistry, and
many other chemical processes, including human physiology.
 The first organic free radical identified was triphenylmethyl
radical, by Moses Gomberg (the founder of radical chemistry)
in 1900.

37.  A carbon -based free radical is a trivalent C-species having
single p-electron in the valence shell.
 It has tetrahedral geometry where the C-atom is sp3
hybridized.

38.  Thermolysis or photolysis of organic peroxides and azo
compounds generates free radicals.
Alkyl peroxide Alkoxy radical
Azo Alkyl nitrile

39.  Bimolecular redox reactions also generate free radicals. For
eg;
Resonance effect due to conjugation stabilizes the free radicals.
Cu(I) Cu(II)Ph O
O Ph
O
O
+ + Ph O
-
O
+ Ph
.
+ CO2

40.  For aromatic
CH2
CH
CH2 CH CH2
CH
CH2 CH2
Benzyl radical

41.  Free radical often take part in radical-propagating
reactions.
Ph CH3 R+ Ph H CH2 R+
R CH2 + Cl Cl R
Cl
+ Cl
Cl + CH3 R ClH + CH2 R
R CH2 + Cl Cl R
Cl + Cl

42.  In some cases, the free radical itself may be fragmented and
trigger the propagation of a chain reaction. For eg;
 Suitably substituted free radical may isomerize.for eg;
CH3
CH2
CH2 CH2 CH3+ CH2
CH3
CH2 CH2
CH2 CH3
H
Br
Me CH2 Me
C
Me
Br

43.  Disproportion and radical coupling are the common reactions
of the termination of free radicals. For eg;
CH3 CH2 CH3 CH2+ CH3 CH3 + CH2 CH2
CH3 CH3+ CH3 CH3
DISPROPORTIONATION
RADICAL COUPLING

44. DETECTION OF FREE RADICALS
 By using electron spin resonance (ESR)
 Highly stabilized free radicals may be detected UV and visible
spectroscopy.
 NMR spectroscopy can detect free radicals (by studying the
overhauser effect ).
 The unpaired electron in a free radical is accommodated in a
single occupied molecular orbital(SOMO).
 If the SOMO is a high-energy orbital, the free radical shows a
tendency to loose an electron.
 If the SOMO is a low-energy orbital ,it shows a tendency to
accept an electron.
R R + e
. +
-
R
.
+ e R

45. NITRENES
 These are neutral reaction intermediates where the central
nitrogen atom is electron-deficient and has a sextet of
electrons.
 Sp2 hybridized and planar in shape.

46. GENERATIONS OF NITRENES
 Like carbenes , these are also generated by protolytic ,thermal,
or base –catalysed α-elimination reactions. For eg;
R N N
+
N
-
O
hv
R N
O
+ N2
Acyl azides Acyl nitrene
R N N
+
N
- hv
R N + N2
Alkyl azides Alkyl nitrene

47.  By reduction of nitro compounds with trialkyl phosphites.
R
N
Br
H
O
+ OH
-
CH3 N
O
+ H2 + Br
-
N-bromo amides
Acyl nitrene
Ph N
+
O
-
O
+ (OEt) 3P Ph N
O
+ (OEt) 2
O
PPh N
(OEt) 3P
+ (OEt) 3

48. REACTIONS OF NITRENES
 Singlet nitrene undergoes a σ-insertion to give 20 - amines. For
eg;
N
H
N
H
alpha insertion
into a
C - H bond
20-Amine

49.  π- Insertion of nitrenes into a C=C bond gives aziridines.
 Acyl nitrenes undergo skeletal rearrangement to give alkyl
isocyanates.this rearrangements is involved in Crutius and
Hoffmann rearrangements.
R R
+
NH
N
H
R R
Singlet Nitrene
R N
O
O
N
R
Acyl nitrene Alkyl isocyanate

50. Detection of nitrenes
 Triplet nitrenes can be detected and distinguished from singlet
nitrenes, like carbenes ,by EPR.

51. Nitrenium ion
 A nitrenium ion (also called: aminylium ion)
on nitrogen with both an electron lone pair and a positive
charge and with two substituents (R2N+).
 Sp3 hybridized and non linear or bent structure.

52. Stability
 Type of ligand attached; example; if aromatic ring is attached
to the nitrogen they are called arylnitrenium ions and similarly
halo and alkyl nitrenium ions if halo and alkyl groups are
attached to the nitrogen.
 Arylnitrenium ions are characterised by delocalization of the
positive charge on nitrogen into the aromatic ring making the
ring susceptible to nucleophilic attack.

53.  Nitrogen is doubly bonded to one atom hence they are called
vinylidene nitrenium ions.

54. Generation and Fate of Reactions
 N-alkyl anthranilium on photolysis produced primary
nitrenium ion by protonation of the nitrogen followed by
heterolysis of N-O bond.

55.  Photolysis of azides to form nitrene followed by protonation in
presence of weakly acidic solution gave nitrenium ions.
 Electrochemical oxidation of amines yields nitrenium ions. But
principle disadvantage of this method is formation of polymers.

56.  N-aminopyridinium ions when subjected to heat in a
nonpolar medium formed nitrenium ions in a nonpolar
media.

57. REFERENCES
 Advanced Organic Chemistry By Bhal And Bhal.
 Textbook Of Organic Chemistry By O.P.Agrwal.
 Organic Chemistry By R.T.Morrison And R.N.Boyed

58. Thank you