The document discusses memory management techniques in operating systems. It describes fixed and dynamic partitioning of main memory between programs. Fixed partitioning can lead to internal fragmentation while dynamic partitioning can result in external fragmentation. The memory manager must track busy and free memory areas using data structures like partition tables. It also must decide where to allocate new programs using first-fit or best-fit placement algorithms.

1. Damian Gordon

3. HARD DISK
(MAIN
MEMORY)
(SECONDARY
MEMORY)
2
CACHE 1

11. HARD DISK
(MAIN
MEMORY)
(SECONDARY
MEMORY)
2
CACHE 1

12. HARD DISK
(MAIN
MEMORY)
(SECONDARY
MEMORY)
2
CACHE 1
101
Approximate number of clock cycles to access
the various elements of the memory hierarchy.

13. HARD DISK
(MAIN
MEMORY)
(SECONDARY
MEMORY)
2
CACHE 1
101
103
Approximate number of clock cycles to access
the various elements of the memory hierarchy.

14. HARD DISK
(MAIN
MEMORY)
(SECONDARY
MEMORY)
2
CACHE 1
101
103
107
Approximate number of clock cycles to access
the various elements of the memory hierarchy.

15.  Let’s consider an operating system model
with a single user, and how they use memory.

16. MAIN
MEMORY

17. 200K
available
MAIN
MEMORY

18.  If I create a program:
200K
available
MAIN
MEMORY

19.  If I create a program:
PROGRAM 1
200K
available
MAIN
MEMORY

20.  If I create a program:
 to be processed, it has
to be written entirely into
Main Memory, in
contiguous space
PROGRAM 1
200K
available
MAIN
MEMORY

21. PROGRAM 1
200K
available
MAIN
MEMORY

22.  If the program is bigger:
PROGRAM 1
200K
available
MAIN
MEMORY

23.  If it doesn’t fit in the
memory, it’s can’t be
processed.
200K
available
MAIN
MEMORY

24.  This is the limitation of all computers, if a
program is too big, we have to do one of two
things:
1. Get more memory
2. Make the program smaller

25. Store first location of program in the base register
(for memory protection);
Set Program Counter to the first memory location;
Read first instruction of program;
WHILE (last instruction reached OR Program Counter is
greater than Memory Size)
DO Increment the Program Counter;
IF (last instruction reached)
THEN Stop Loading Program;
END IF;
IF (Program Counter is greater than Memory Size)
THEN Stop Loading Program;
END IF;
Load instruction into memory;
Read next instruction of program;
END WHILE;

26.  To allow more than one program to run at the
same time, the memory is subdivided into
FIXED PARTITIONS.

27. MAIN
MEMORY
250K

28. PARTITION 1
PARTITION 2
PARTITION 3
PARTITION 4
PARTITION 5
250K
100K
25K
25K
50K
50K

29.  This leaves us with less memory, but at least
more than one user (and their user process)
can be logged into the system at the same
time.
 If we want to adjust the size of the partitions
we need to shut down the system, go into the
boot login, and then restart.

30. WHILE (there are still programs in the queue)
DO Determine the program’s requested memory size;
IF program size > Size of Largest Partition
THEN Reject the program;
PRINT “program Rejected: Not Enough Memory”;
Exit; /* this iteration and get next program */
END IF;
MyCounter := 1;
WHILE (MyCounter <= Number of Partitions in Memory)
DO IF (program Size > Memory_Partition[Counter].Size
THEN MyCounter := MyCounter + 1;
ELSE IF (Memory_Partition[Counter].Status == “FREE”;
THEN Load program into Memory_Partition[Counter];
Memory_Partition[Counter].Status := “BUSY”;
Exit; /* this iteration and get next program */
ELSE MyCounter := MyCounter + 1;
END IF;
END WHILE;
No partition available;
put program in waiting queue;
END WHILE;

31.  To make this work, the Memory manager
needs to keep a Partition Table to remember
the status of all the partitions.

32.  To make this work, the Memory manager
needs to keep a Partition Table to remember
the status of all the partitions.
Partition
Number
Partition
Size
Memory
Address Access
Partition
Status
1 100K 200K Program1 BUSY
2 25K 300K Program4 BUSY
3 25K 325K FREE
4 50K 350K Program2 BUSY
5 50K 400K FREE

33.  Which looks like this
in memory:

34.  Which looks like this
in memory:
PARTITION 1
PARTITION 2
PARTITION 3
PARTITION 4
PARTITION 5
250K
100K
25K
25K
50K
50K

35.  Let’s add some
programs in:

36.  Let’s add some
programs in:
PARTITION 1
PARTITION 2
PARTITION 3
PARTITION 4
PARTITION 5
100K
25K
25K
50K
50K
250K

37.  Let’s add some
programs in:
PARTITION 1
PARTITION 2
PARTITION 3
PARTITION 4
PARTITION 5
100K
25K
25K
50K
50K
PROGRAM 1
250K

38.  Let’s add some
programs in:
PARTITION 1
PARTITION 2
PARTITION 3
PARTITION 4
PARTITION 5
100K
25K
25K
50K
50K
PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
250K

39.  Let’s add some
programs in:
PARTITION 1
PARTITION 2
PARTITION 3
PARTITION 4
PARTITION 5
100K
25K
25K
50K
50K
PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
250K
PROGRAM 3

40.  Let’s add some
programs in:
PARTITION 1
PARTITION 2
PARTITION 3
PARTITION 4
PARTITION 5
100K
25K
25K
50K
50K
PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
PROGRAM 3
250K
INTERNAL FRAGMENTATION

41.  Let’s add some
programs in:
PARTITION 1
PARTITION 2
PARTITION 3
PARTITION 4
PARTITION 5
100K
25K
25K
50K
50K
PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
PROGRAM 3
250K
INTERNAL FRAGMENTATION
INTERNAL FRAGMENTATION

42.  Let’s add some
programs in:
PARTITION 1
PARTITION 2
PARTITION 3
PARTITION 4
PARTITION 5
100K
25K
25K
50K
50K
PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
PROGRAM 3
250K
INTERNAL FRAGMENTATION
INTERNAL FRAGMENTATION
EMPTY PARTITION

43.  Let’s add some
programs in:
PARTITION 1
PARTITION 2
PARTITION 3
PARTITION 4
PARTITION 5
100K
25K
25K
50K
50K
PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
PROGRAM 3
250K
INTERNAL FRAGMENTATION
INTERNAL FRAGMENTATION
EMPTY PARTITION
EMPTY PARTITION

44.  Selecting the correct set of partition sizes is a
tricky business, too small and larger
programs will be waiting forever to run, too
big and there is a lot of wasted space.

45.  An alternative is DYNAMIC PARTITIONS,
where a program is given the space it
requests, if there is space available for it.
 This takes care of lots of problems.

46.  Let’s add some
programs in:
MAIN
MEMORY
250K

47.  Let’s add some
programs in:
MAIN
MEMORY
250K
PROGRAM 1

48.  Let’s add some
programs in:
MAIN
MEMORY
PROGRAM 1
250K

49.  Let’s add some
programs in:
MAIN
MEMORY
PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
250K

50.  Let’s add some
programs in:
MAIN
MEMORY
PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
250K

51.  Let’s add some
programs in:
MAIN
MEMORY
PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
PROGRAM 3
250K

52.  Let’s add some
programs in:
MAIN
MEMORY
PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
PROGRAM 3250K

53.  Let’s add some
programs in:
MAIN
MEMORY
PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
PROGRAM 3250KPROGRAM 4

54.  Let’s add some
programs in:
MAIN
MEMORY
PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
PROGRAM 3250K
PROGRAM 4

55.  Let’s add some
programs in:
MAIN
MEMORY
PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
250K
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 3

56.  Let’s add some
programs in:
MAIN
MEMORY
PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
250K
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 3

57.  It isn’t perfect, because the next program will
go into the slot that is freed up by a
completed program.

58.  Let’s add some
programs in:
MAIN
MEMORY
PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
250K
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 3

59.  Let’s add some
programs in:
MAIN
MEMORY
PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
250K
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 3

60.  Let’s add some
programs in: PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
250K
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 5

61.  Let’s add some
programs in: PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
250K
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 5

62.  Let’s add some
programs in: PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
250K
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 5
EXTERNAL FRAGMENTATION

63.  So however we partition, we end up with
fragmentation, one way or the other.

64. PROGRAM 1
PROGRAM 2
250K
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 3

65. PROGRAM 2
250K
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 5
 So how do we decide
where to slot in a
new program?
PROGRAM 3
PROGRAM 1

66.  So how do we decide
where to slot in a
new program? PROGRAM 2
PROGRAM 3 250K
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 6
PROGRAM 1

67.  Here is the first slot
free
PROGRAM 2
PROGRAM 3 250K
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 6
PROGRAM 1

68.  Here is the first slot
free
PROGRAM 2
PROGRAM 3 250K
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 6
PROGRAM 1

69.  But here’s a better fit
PROGRAM 2
PROGRAM 3 250K
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 6
PROGRAM 1

70.  But here’s a better fit
PROGRAM 2
PROGRAM 3 250K
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 6
PROGRAM 1

71.  So we can either add the new block to the
first available slot (FIRST-FIT ALGORITHM) or
we can add the new block to the most
suitable available slot (BEST-FIT ALGORITHM).

72.  If the Memory Manager wants a FIRST-FIT
ALGORITHM then it stores a table in order of
memory locations.
 If the Memory Manager wants a BEST-FIT
ALGORITHM then it stores a table in order of
size of memory locations.
Starts Size Status
200 50 BUSY
250 50 FREE
300 15 BUSY
315 40 FREE
355 25 BUSY
Starts Size Status
315 40 FREE
250 50 FREE
300 15 BUSY
355 25 BUSY
315 40 BUSY
Starts Size Status

73.  After a program is completed, there are three
cases for deallocating space in memory:

74.  1. There are programs either side of the freed
space:
PROGRAM 3
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 6
PROGRAM 3
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 5 PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 8 PROGRAM 8

75.  2. There are is a program on one side, and
it’s free on the other side of the freed space:
PROGRAM 3
PROGRAM 6
PROGRAM 3
PROGRAM 5 PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 8 PROGRAM 8

76.  3. There are no programs on either side of
the freed space:
PROGRAM 6
PROGRAM 5 PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 8 PROGRAM 8

77.  Let’s look at the implications of each of these
cases in terms of what the Memory Manager
has to do to remember the FREE and BUSY
memory spaces.

78.  1. There are programs either side of the freed
space:
PROGRAM 3
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 6
PROGRAM 3
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 5 PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 8 PROGRAM 8

79.  1. There are programs either side of the freed
space:
PROGRAM 3
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 6
PROGRAM 3
PROGRAM 4
PROGRAM 5 PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 8 PROGRAM 8
250-300
315-340
300-315
200-250
355-380
340-355
250-300
315-340
300-315
200-250
355-380
340-355

80.  1. There are programs either side of the freed
space:
250-300
315-340
300-315
200-250
355-380
340-355
250-300
315-340
300-315
200-250
355-380
340-355
Starts Size Status
200 50 BUSY
250 50 BUSY
300 15 BUSY
315 25 BUSY
340 15 FREE
355 25 BUSY
Starts Size Status
200 50 BUSY
250 50 BUSY
300 15 FREE
315 25 BUSY
340 15 FREE
355 25 BUSY

81.  2. There are is a program on one side, and
it’s free on the other side of the freed space:
PROGRAM 3
PROGRAM 6
PROGRAM 3
PROGRAM 5 PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 8 PROGRAM 8

82.  2. There are is a program on one side, and
it’s free on the other side of the freed space:
PROGRAM 3
PROGRAM 6
PROGRAM 3
PROGRAM 5 PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 8 PROGRAM 8
250-300
300-315
200-250
355-380
315-355
250-300
200-250
355-380
300-355

83.  2. There are is a program on one side, and
it’s free on the other side of the freed space:
250-300
300-315
200-250
355-380
315-355
250-300
200-250
355-380
300-355
Starts Size Status
200 50 BUSY
250 50 BUSY
300 15 BUSY
315 40 FREE
355 25 BUSY
Starts Size Status
200 50 BUSY
250 50 BUSY
300 15 FREE
315 40 FREE
355 25 BUSY

84.  2. There are is a program on one side, and
it’s free on the other side of the freed space:
Starts Size Status
200 50 BUSY
250 50 BUSY
300 15 BUSY
315 40 FREE
355 25 BUSY
Starts Size Status
200 50 BUSY
250 50 BUSY
300 15 FREE
315 40 FREE
355 25 BUSY

85.  2. There are is a program on one side, and
it’s free on the other side of the freed space:
Starts Size Status
200 50 BUSY
250 50 BUSY
300 15 BUSY
315 40 FREE
355 25 BUSY
Starts Size Status
200 50 BUSY
250 50 BUSY
300 15 FREE
315 40 FREE
355 25 BUSY
Starts Size Status
200 50 BUSY
250 50 BUSY
300 55 FREE
355 25 BUSY

86.  3. There are no programs on either side of
the freed space:
PROGRAM 6
PROGRAM 5 PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 8 PROGRAM 8

87.  3. There are no programs on either side of
the freed space:
PROGRAM 6
PROGRAM 5 PROGRAM 5
PROGRAM 8 PROGRAM 8
250-300
300-315
200-250
355-380
315-355
250-355
200-250
355-380

88.  3. There are no programs on either side of
the freed space:
250-300
300-315
200-250
355-380
315-355
250-355
200-250
355-380
Starts Size Status
200 50 BUSY
250 50 FREE
300 15 BUSY
315 40 FREE
355 25 BUSY
Starts Size Status
200 50 BUSY
250 50 FREE
300 15 FREE
315 40 FREE
355 25 BUSY

89.  3. There are no programs on either side of
the freed space:
Starts Size Status
200 50 BUSY
250 50 FREE
300 15 BUSY
315 40 FREE
355 25 BUSY
Starts Size Status
200 50 BUSY
250 50 FREE
300 15 FREE
315 40 FREE
355 25 BUSY

90.  3. There are no programs on either side of
the freed space:
Starts Size Status
200 50 BUSY
250 50 FREE
300 15 BUSY
315 40 FREE
355 25 BUSY
Starts Size Status
200 50 BUSY
250 50 FREE
300 15 FREE
315 40 FREE
355 25 BUSY
Starts Size Status
200 50 BUSY
250 105 FREE
355 25 BUSY