Approach to Hypoglycemia in Children.pptxJwan AlSofi
Introduction
DEFINITION
Symptoms and Signs of Hypoglycemia
Sequelae of Hypoglycemia
Hormonal Signal
Regulation of serum glucose
Disorders of Hypoglycemia
Classification of Hypoglycemia in Infants and Children
DIAGNOSIS
EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT
Title: Sense of Taste
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the structure and function of taste buds.
Describe the relationship between the taste threshold and taste index of common substances.
Explain the chemical basis and signal transduction of taste perception for each type of primary taste sensation.
Recognize different abnormalities of taste perception and their causes.
Key Topics:
Significance of Taste Sensation:
Differentiation between pleasant and harmful food
Influence on behavior
Selection of food based on metabolic needs
Receptors of Taste:
Taste buds on the tongue
Influence of sense of smell, texture of food, and pain stimulation (e.g., by pepper)
Primary and Secondary Taste Sensations:
Primary taste sensations: Sweet, Sour, Salty, Bitter, Umami
Chemical basis and signal transduction mechanisms for each taste
Taste Threshold and Index:
Taste threshold values for Sweet (sucrose), Salty (NaCl), Sour (HCl), and Bitter (Quinine)
Taste index relationship: Inversely proportional to taste threshold
Taste Blindness:
Inability to taste certain substances, particularly thiourea compounds
Example: Phenylthiocarbamide
Structure and Function of Taste Buds:
Composition: Epithelial cells, Sustentacular/Supporting cells, Taste cells, Basal cells
Features: Taste pores, Taste hairs/microvilli, and Taste nerve fibers
Location of Taste Buds:
Found in papillae of the tongue (Fungiform, Circumvallate, Foliate)
Also present on the palate, tonsillar pillars, epiglottis, and proximal esophagus
Mechanism of Taste Stimulation:
Interaction of taste substances with receptors on microvilli
Signal transduction pathways for Umami, Sweet, Bitter, Sour, and Salty tastes
Taste Sensitivity and Adaptation:
Decrease in sensitivity with age
Rapid adaptation of taste sensation
Role of Saliva in Taste:
Dissolution of tastants to reach receptors
Washing away the stimulus
Taste Preferences and Aversions:
Mechanisms behind taste preference and aversion
Influence of receptors and neural pathways
Impact of Sensory Nerve Damage:
Degeneration of taste buds if the sensory nerve fiber is cut
Abnormalities of Taste Detection:
Conditions: Ageusia, Hypogeusia, Dysgeusia (parageusia)
Causes: Nerve damage, neurological disorders, infections, poor oral hygiene, adverse drug effects, deficiencies, aging, tobacco use, altered neurotransmitter levels
Neurotransmitters and Taste Threshold:
Effects of serotonin (5-HT) and norepinephrine (NE) on taste sensitivity
Supertasters:
25% of the population with heightened sensitivity to taste, especially bitterness
Increased number of fungiform papillae
Basavarajeeyam is an important text for ayurvedic physician belonging to andhra pradehs. It is a popular compendium in various parts of our country as well as in andhra pradesh. The content of the text was presented in sanskrit and telugu language (Bilingual). One of the most famous book in ayurvedic pharmaceutics and therapeutics. This book contains 25 chapters called as prakaranas. Many rasaoushadis were explained, pioneer of dhatu druti, nadi pareeksha, mutra pareeksha etc. Belongs to the period of 15-16 century. New diseases like upadamsha, phiranga rogas are explained.
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Title: Sense of Smell
Presenter: Dr. Faiza, Assistant Professor of Physiology
Qualifications:
MBBS (Best Graduate, AIMC Lahore)
FCPS Physiology
ICMT, CHPE, DHPE (STMU)
MPH (GC University, Faisalabad)
MBA (Virtual University of Pakistan)
Learning Objectives:
Describe the primary categories of smells and the concept of odor blindness.
Explain the structure and location of the olfactory membrane and mucosa, including the types and roles of cells involved in olfaction.
Describe the pathway and mechanisms of olfactory signal transmission from the olfactory receptors to the brain.
Illustrate the biochemical cascade triggered by odorant binding to olfactory receptors, including the role of G-proteins and second messengers in generating an action potential.
Identify different types of olfactory disorders such as anosmia, hyposmia, hyperosmia, and dysosmia, including their potential causes.
Key Topics:
Olfactory Genes:
3% of the human genome accounts for olfactory genes.
400 genes for odorant receptors.
Olfactory Membrane:
Located in the superior part of the nasal cavity.
Medially: Folds downward along the superior septum.
Laterally: Folds over the superior turbinate and upper surface of the middle turbinate.
Total surface area: 5-10 square centimeters.
Olfactory Mucosa:
Olfactory Cells: Bipolar nerve cells derived from the CNS (100 million), with 4-25 olfactory cilia per cell.
Sustentacular Cells: Produce mucus and maintain ionic and molecular environment.
Basal Cells: Replace worn-out olfactory cells with an average lifespan of 1-2 months.
Bowman’s Gland: Secretes mucus.
Stimulation of Olfactory Cells:
Odorant dissolves in mucus and attaches to receptors on olfactory cilia.
Involves a cascade effect through G-proteins and second messengers, leading to depolarization and action potential generation in the olfactory nerve.
Quality of a Good Odorant:
Small (3-20 Carbon atoms), volatile, water-soluble, and lipid-soluble.
Facilitated by odorant-binding proteins in mucus.
Membrane Potential and Action Potential:
Resting membrane potential: -55mV.
Action potential frequency in the olfactory nerve increases with odorant strength.
Adaptation Towards the Sense of Smell:
Rapid adaptation within the first second, with further slow adaptation.
Psychological adaptation greater than receptor adaptation, involving feedback inhibition from the central nervous system.
Primary Sensations of Smell:
Camphoraceous, Musky, Floral, Pepperminty, Ethereal, Pungent, Putrid.
Odor Detection Threshold:
Examples: Hydrogen sulfide (0.0005 ppm), Methyl-mercaptan (0.002 ppm).
Some toxic substances are odorless at lethal concentrations.
Characteristics of Smell:
Odor blindness for single substances due to lack of appropriate receptor protein.
Behavioral and emotional influences of smell.
Transmission of Olfactory Signals:
From olfactory cells to glomeruli in the olfactory bulb, involving lateral inhibition.
Primitive, less old, and new olfactory systems with different path
Recomendações da OMS sobre cuidados maternos e neonatais para uma experiência pós-natal positiva.
Em consonância com os ODS – Objetivos do Desenvolvimento Sustentável e a Estratégia Global para a Saúde das Mulheres, Crianças e Adolescentes, e aplicando uma abordagem baseada nos direitos humanos, os esforços de cuidados pós-natais devem expandir-se para além da cobertura e da simples sobrevivência, de modo a incluir cuidados de qualidade.
Estas diretrizes visam melhorar a qualidade dos cuidados pós-natais essenciais e de rotina prestados às mulheres e aos recém-nascidos, com o objetivo final de melhorar a saúde e o bem-estar materno e neonatal.
Uma “experiência pós-natal positiva” é um resultado importante para todas as mulheres que dão à luz e para os seus recém-nascidos, estabelecendo as bases para a melhoria da saúde e do bem-estar a curto e longo prazo. Uma experiência pós-natal positiva é definida como aquela em que as mulheres, pessoas que gestam, os recém-nascidos, os casais, os pais, os cuidadores e as famílias recebem informação consistente, garantia e apoio de profissionais de saúde motivados; e onde um sistema de saúde flexível e com recursos reconheça as necessidades das mulheres e dos bebês e respeite o seu contexto cultural.
Estas diretrizes consolidadas apresentam algumas recomendações novas e já bem fundamentadas sobre cuidados pós-natais de rotina para mulheres e neonatos que recebem cuidados no pós-parto em unidades de saúde ou na comunidade, independentemente dos recursos disponíveis.
É fornecido um conjunto abrangente de recomendações para cuidados durante o período puerperal, com ênfase nos cuidados essenciais que todas as mulheres e recém-nascidos devem receber, e com a devida atenção à qualidade dos cuidados; isto é, a entrega e a experiência do cuidado recebido. Estas diretrizes atualizam e ampliam as recomendações da OMS de 2014 sobre cuidados pós-natais da mãe e do recém-nascido e complementam as atuais diretrizes da OMS sobre a gestão de complicações pós-natais.
O estabelecimento da amamentação e o manejo das principais intercorrências é contemplada.
Recomendamos muito.
Vamos discutir essas recomendações no nosso curso de pós-graduação em Aleitamento no Instituto Ciclos.
Esta publicação só está disponível em inglês até o momento.
Prof. Marcus Renato de Carvalho
www.agostodourado.com
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Lung Cancer: Artificial Intelligence, Synergetics, Complex System Analysis, S...Oleg Kshivets
RESULTS: Overall life span (LS) was 2252.1±1742.5 days and cumulative 5-year survival (5YS) reached 73.2%, 10 years – 64.8%, 20 years – 42.5%. 513 LCP lived more than 5 years (LS=3124.6±1525.6 days), 148 LCP – more than 10 years (LS=5054.4±1504.1 days).199 LCP died because of LC (LS=562.7±374.5 days). 5YS of LCP after bi/lobectomies was significantly superior in comparison with LCP after pneumonectomies (78.1% vs.63.7%, P=0.00001 by log-rank test). AT significantly improved 5YS (66.3% vs. 34.8%) (P=0.00000 by log-rank test) only for LCP with N1-2. Cox modeling displayed that 5YS of LCP significantly depended on: phase transition (PT) early-invasive LC in terms of synergetics, PT N0—N12, cell ratio factors (ratio between cancer cells- CC and blood cells subpopulations), G1-3, histology, glucose, AT, blood cell circuit, prothrombin index, heparin tolerance, recalcification time (P=0.000-0.038). Neural networks, genetic algorithm selection and bootstrap simulation revealed relationships between 5YS and PT early-invasive LC (rank=1), PT N0—N12 (rank=2), thrombocytes/CC (3), erythrocytes/CC (4), eosinophils/CC (5), healthy cells/CC (6), lymphocytes/CC (7), segmented neutrophils/CC (8), stick neutrophils/CC (9), monocytes/CC (10); leucocytes/CC (11). Correct prediction of 5YS was 100% by neural networks computing (area under ROC curve=1.0; error=0.0).
CONCLUSIONS: 5YS of LCP after radical procedures significantly depended on: 1) PT early-invasive cancer; 2) PT N0--N12; 3) cell ratio factors; 4) blood cell circuit; 5) biochemical factors; 6) hemostasis system; 7) AT; 8) LC characteristics; 9) LC cell dynamics; 10) surgery type: lobectomy/pneumonectomy; 11) anthropometric data. Optimal diagnosis and treatment strategies for LC are: 1) screening and early detection of LC; 2) availability of experienced thoracic surgeons because of complexity of radical procedures; 3) aggressive en block surgery and adequate lymph node dissection for completeness; 4) precise prediction; 5) adjuvant chemoimmunoradiotherapy for LCP with unfavorable prognosis.
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Residents are reminded that the flu vaccine is safe and effective. Common side effects are mild and may include soreness at the injection site, mild fever, or muscle aches. These side effects are generally short-lived and far less severe than the flu itself.
Healthcare providers are also stressing the importance of continuing COVID-19 precautions. Wearing masks, practicing good hand hygiene, and maintaining social distancing are still crucial, especially in crowded places.
Protect yourself and your loved ones by getting vaccinated. Together, we can help keep Bangalore healthy and safe this flu season. For more information on vaccination centers and schedules, residents can visit the Karnataka Health Department’s official website or follow their social media pages.
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- Video recording of this lecture in English language: https://youtu.be/lK81BzxMqdo
- Video recording of this lecture in Arabic language: https://youtu.be/Ve4P0COk9OI
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2. Neonatal Encephalopathy
• The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG)
describes neonatal encephalopathy
• as a clinically defined syndrome of disturbed neurologic function in the
earliest days of life
• born at or beyond 35 weeks of gestation,
• manifested by a subnormal level of consciousness or seizures, and often
accompanied by difficulty with initiating and maintaining respiration and
depression of tone and reflexes.
2
4. • Acute encephalopathy due to metabolic disorders usually
result from
• accumulation of a toxic substance e.g. ammonia or
• deficiency of an essential product e.g. ATP.
• Most of these metabolites are able to cross the placenta and
therefore the baby is usually well at birth. A typical history
would be a baby who was well initially, but only to present
with poor feeding, lethargy or seizures after a few days.
4
5. Presentation of IEM 5
IEM
Acute encephalopathy
• Urea cycle disorders
• Non ketotic
hyperglycinemia
• Organic academia
• Maple syrup urine disease
• Mitochondrial disease
Metabolic academia
• Organic academia
• Fatty acid oxidation
defect
• Congenital lactic acidosis
Hypoglycemia
• Galactosemia
• GSD
• Carnitine deficiency
• Fatty acid oxidation
defect
6. Presentation of IEM
• Inborn errors of metabolism presenting with
encephalopathy can broadly be divided into 2 main groups,
1. One with significant biochemical abnormalities and
2. Another with NO significant biochemical abnormalities
6
8. 1. Hyperammonemia
• When there is significant hyperammonemia, the main metabolic disorders
to exclude are
• urea cycle defects and
• organic acidurias
• As these disorders mainly affect the protein metabolism, they often
present after the baby has established full feeds.
• Other rare causes of hyperammonemia to consider are fatty
acid oxidation disorders and transient hyperammonemia of
the newborn.
8
9. • Ammonium is neurotoxic.
• Neurological damage and prognosis is dependent on the duration and
severity of hyperammonemia.
• All protein intake should be stopped.
• Treatment includes intravenous sodium benzoate or sodium
phenylbutyrate.
• Severe or refractory cases may require hemodialysis
• Other medications may be required depending on the metabolic disorder
suspected
9
11. 2. Metabolic Acidosis
• A common feature during an acute illness is metabolic acidosis
with an increased anion gap. These can be divided into the main
anions that cause the acidosis.
A. Lactic acidosis
B. Organic aciduria
11
13. A. Lactic acidosis
• Lactic acidosis can be a common acute feature in critically ill neonates,
often as a result of poor circulatory perfusion or seizure activity.
• However, persistent lactic acidosis or increased lactate in the cerebrospinal
fluid is suggestive of metabolic disease.
• In a neonate with encephalopathy and persistent lactic acidosis, one needs
to exclude mitochondrial defects or pyruvate metabolism defects.
13
14. B. Organic acidurias
• Organic acidurias such as methylmalonic acidaemia (MMA) and propionic acidaemia (PA)
are disorders of branched-chain amino acid metabolism.
• Metabolic decompensation occurs around in the first week of life after
establishing feeds with marked metabolic acidosis. This is also usually accompanied by
hyperammonemia as a result of a secondary inhibition of the urea cycle.
• Urine organic acid analysis would show excretion of the abnormal organic acid and is
often diagnostic
• Administration of carnitine facilitates the excretion of the organic acids.
• In addition, cofactors such as vitamin B12 or biotin are often given
• Treatment for secondary hyperammonemia may be necessary
14
15. 3. Hypoglycaemia
• Hypoglycaemia can be a presenting feature in many metabolic diseases.
• The timing of hypoglycaemia in relation to feeds can be very useful in
directing the next line of investigations. If hypoglycaemia occurs shortly
after a feed, one should always suspect hyperinsulinism. Disorders of
gluconeogensis can present after fasting of a few hours.
• Fatty acid oxidation defects are also an important group of conditions to
consider in hypoglycaemia. Urine organic acid analysis, measurement of
plasma carnitine and acylcarnitine profile are the main line of
investigations.
15
17. Encephalopathy with no obvious biochemical
abnormality
• Non-ketotic hyperglycinemia (NKH) typically presents in the first few hours
or days of life with refractory seizures and progressive obtundation. The
presence of hiccups may be a clue.
• Diagnosis is based on an increased CSF:plasma glycine ratio.
• Treatment in classical NKH is often disappointing and mortality is high.
Survivors will have profound neurological sequelae.
• Molybdenum cofactor deficiency or isolated sulphite oxidase deficiency can
also present with encephalopathy
17
18. • GLUT-1 deficiency syndrome can also present with intractable seizures in
the first week of life.
• Diagnosis is suggested by a CSF: blood glucose equal or less than 1/3 blood
glucose.
• Treatment involves a ketogenic diet to provide alternative fuel to the
brain.
• Vitamin-responsive seizures are another rare cause.
E.g.Pyridoxine-dependent, pyridoxal phosphate and folinic acid.
18
19. Epileptic encephalopathy
• The term epileptic encephalopathy describes a heterogeneous group of epilepsy
syndromes associated with severe cognitive and behavioural disturbances.
• The ILAE defined an epileptic encephalopathy as a condition in which “the
epileptiform EEG abnormalities themselves are believed to contribute to a
progressive disturbance in cerebral function.”
19
20. Epileptic encphlaopathy includes
• Early myoclonic encephalopathy
• Early infantile epileptic encephalopathy (Ohtahara syndrome)
• Infantile Spasm ( West Syndrome)
• Severe myoclonic epilepsy in infancy (Dravet syndrome)
• Migrating partial seizures in infancy
• Myoclonic status in nonprogressive encephalopathies
• Lennox-Gastaut syndrome ( LGS)
• Landau-Kleffner syndrome ( LKS)
20
21. Different metabolic disorder with similar
epilepsy correlate
Type of seizure Metabolic disorder
Infantile spasm Biotinase deficiency, Menke disease, Organic aciduria,
Aminoacidopathies, Mitochondrial disorders
Epilepsy with myoclonic
seizure
Non Ketotic Hyperglycenimia, GLUT-1 deficiency,
Mitochondrial disorders
Progessive myoclonic
epilepsy
Sialodosis, Mitochondrial disorders, Lafora disease
Epilepsy with generalized
tonic clonic seizure
GLUT-1 deficiency, Neuronal ceroid lipofuscinosis
Epilepsy partialis continua Alper’s disease, Mitochondrial disorders
21
22. • The approach to neonatal seizure will be same in all cases. It is
only after routine workup and management, we find either no
cause or no response the we start thinking of Neonatal epilepsy
syndromes.
• Most of these disorders will have normal findings on routine
screening e.g. normal ammonia, lactate or mildly elevated due to
convulsions, no significant hypo or hyperglycemia, normal calcium
and magnesium, normal ABG and anion gap, normal CBC.
• Thus in short no clue to diagnosis then we call it as “Group 1 type
of neurological intoxication” profile.
22
23. Group 1 type of neurological intoxication
1. Pyridoxal dependency
2. Pyridoxal phosphate deficiency
3. Folinic acid responsive seizure
4. Serine deficiency
5. GLUT-1 deficiency
6. DEND syndrome ( Developmental delay, Epilepsy and Neonatal
Diabetes)
7. Non ketotic hyperglycinemia
23
24. Pyridoxin dependent seizures (PDS)
• Severe intractable seizure not controlled by AEDs but promptly stop on
pyridoxine administration
• Markers – elevated plasma and CSF pipecolic acid
- urinary Alpha Aminoadipic Semialdehyde (AASA)
• Gene locus 5q31
• Pregnant women given birth to previous PDS should receive 50-100mg
pyridoxine daily for later half of pregnancy
24
25. Pyridoxal phosphate deficiency
• Suspected when there is partial or no response pyridoxine
• CSF shows – reduced HVA and 5HIAA
- elevated Ser, Thr, Gly
• Biomarker – Methoxytyrosine in CSF
• Gene locus 17q21
• Treatment – oral administration of pyridoxal phosphate
25
26. Folinic acid responsive seizure
• Similar presentation as pyridoxine dependent seizures
• Suspected when no response to pyridoxine administration
• Markers – elevated plasma and CSF pipecolic acid
- urinary Alpha Aminoadipic Semialdehyde (AASA)
• Treatment – Folinic acid. Pyridoxin is always given alongwith
26
27. Serine synthesis defect
• Due to deficiency of phosphoglycerate dehydrogenase (mostly)
• Low CSF serine
• Treatment - Serine therapy
27
28. Glucose transporter type 1 deficiency
• Low CSF sugar – hallmark- CSF glucose is equal or less than 1/3
blood glucose
• 3 phenotypes described
• SCL2A1 mutation
• Treatment – Ketogenic diet + carnitine
28
29. DEND syndrome
• Channelopathy mutation of KATP involving brain and pancreas
• Insulin is customary given but does not ameliorate the neurological
manifestation. However sulphonylureas have better response than insulin.
They bind the channel and causes physiological release of insulin
29
30. MRI findings in metabolic encephalopathy
Disorder Findings
Pyridoxine dependent seizures Venticulomegaly ±
Pyridoxal phosphate dependent
seizure
Brain atrophy±, delayed myelination
Folinic acid responsive seizures Increased signal in fontoparietal white
matter on T2
GLUT-1 Deficiency Normal
Serine deficiency Cortical and subcortical atrophy,
hypomylination
30
31. Treatment summary
Disorder Drugs
Pyridoxine dependent seizures Trail 100mg IV to max 500mg
15-30mg/kg/day oral
Pyridoxal phosphate dependent
seizures
Pyridoxal phosphate - 30-50mg/kg/day
in 3-6 divided doses
Folinic acid responsive seizures 2-5mg IV, 3-5mg /kg/day (with
pyridoxine)
GLUT-1 Deficiency Ketogenic diet + Carnitine
50mg/kg/day
DEND Sulphonylurea
31
32. Others
• Early myoclonic epilepsy – seen in
• Non ketotic hyperglycinemia
• Organic acidemia
• GABA transaminase deficiency
• Serine deficiency
• Sulfite oxidase deficiency
• Peroxisomal disorder
• Early infantile epileptic encephalopathy (Ohtahara syndrome)
• Nonketotic hyperglycinemia
• Mitochondrial disorders
32
33. General management during acute stage
Supportive care Admit
Venous/arterial line
Adequate respiratory support
Correct hypothermia/hypoglycemia/dehydration
Correction of acidosis [pH< 7.22, HCO3 < 14mEq/L]
Keep NPO/ GIR 6mg/kg/min
Reduce load/ removal of
affected metabolites
Ensure adequate hydration and urine output
Peritoneal dialysis
• Oligouria/anuria
• Serum Sodium >165
• Persistant metabolic acidosis
• Hyperammonia >400micromol/L
Co-factor administration Vitamin [100 times the daily requirement]
Oral carnitine 100-200mg/day
33
34. Precautions while collecting samples
• Should be collected before specific treatment is started or feeds
are stopped
• Samples for blood ammonia and lactate should be transported in
ice and immediately tested.
• Lactate sample should be arterial and should be collected after 2
hours fasting in preheparinised syringe
• Ammonia sample is to be collected approximately after 2 hours of
fasting in EDTA vacutainer.
• Avoid mixing air and flow should be free flow
34
38. References
• Uptodate.com
• Nelson textbook of Pediatrics
• Inborn errors of metabolism in critically ill newborn – Anil B Jalan
• Ee Shien Tan ; Inborn Errors of Metabolism Presenting as Neonatal
Encephalopathy: Practical Tips for Clinicians; Ann Acad Med Singapore
2008;37(Suppl 3):94-6
• PGI/AIIMS protocol
38
Editor's Notes
Good evening, on todays academic session I am presenting on
Perinatal stroke is a separate recognized entity in term newborn with encephalopathy
Respiratory distress
As per biochemical parameter
Pyruvate metabolism like pyruvate carboxylase and dehydrogenase, kreb cycle disorders
as the patient might have a vitamin B12 responsive MMA or some patients with multiple carboxylase deficiency are responsive to biotin
Plasma uric acid
One has to think at-least 5-6 of following condition