This document discusses the concept of morphological productivity. It defines productivity as the ability of an affix or word formation rule to coin new words. Productivity can vary, with some affixes being highly productive and able to generate many new words, while others are unproductive. Productivity is constrained by both pragmatic factors like trends and structural factors like phonological or morphological restrictions on affixes. Measuring the productivity of an affix involves counting how many new words it has formed. Blocking also limits productivity, where an existing word blocks the formation of a similar derived word.
Two Views of Discourse Structure: As a Product and As a ProcessCRISALDO CORDURA
This is are 3 presenter presentation on the discussion of "Two Views of Discourse Structure: As a Product and As a Process"
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Two Views of Discourse Structure: As a Product and As a ProcessCRISALDO CORDURA
This is are 3 presenter presentation on the discussion of "Two Views of Discourse Structure: As a Product and As a Process"
Credit to
https://uomustansiriyah.edu.iq/media/lectures/8/8_2020_03_30!04_57_35_PM.pptx
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The book from the school
THIS THE THEORY OF OGDEN AND RICHARDS ON THE MEANING. it extract from their book of meaning of meaning. in which they discussed about the semantics triangle.
Derivational and inflectional morphemesDewi Maharani
Provide the explanation how words are formed by adding morpheme(s) and how the addition of morpheme affect the word (meaning or class). beside\s, this also provide the explanaton of kinds of derivational and inflectional mor[pheme
THIS THE THEORY OF OGDEN AND RICHARDS ON THE MEANING. it extract from their book of meaning of meaning. in which they discussed about the semantics triangle.
Derivational and inflectional morphemesDewi Maharani
Provide the explanation how words are formed by adding morpheme(s) and how the addition of morpheme affect the word (meaning or class). beside\s, this also provide the explanaton of kinds of derivational and inflectional mor[pheme
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESO.docxmattinsonjanel
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL)
Derivative Word Forms: What Do Learners Know?
Author(s): Norbert Schmitt and Cheryl Boyd Zimmerman
Reviewed work(s):
Source: TESOL Quarterly, Vol. 36, No. 2 (Summer, 2002), pp. 145-171
Published by: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc. (TESOL)
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Derivative Word Forms:
What Do Learners Know?
NORBERT SCHMITT
University of Nottingham
University Park, Nottingham, England
CHERYL BOYD ZIMMERMAN
California State University, Fullerton
Fullerton, California, United States
Some teachers and researchers may assume that when a learner knows
one member of a word family (e.g., stimulate), the other members (e.g.,
stimulant, stimulative) are relatively easy to learn. Although knowing one
member of a word family undoubtedly facilitates receptive mastery of
the other members, the small amount of previous research has sug-
gested that L2 learners often have problems producing the various
derivative forms within a word family. This study examined the ability of
106 graduate and undergraduate nonnative-English-speaking students
to produce appropriate derivatives in the four major word classes (i.e.,
noun, verb, adjective, and adverb) for 16 prompt words. The results
indicated that it was relatively uncommon for subjects to know either all
of the four word forms or none of them. Subjects usually had partial
knowledge of the derivatives, with productive knowledge of two or three
forms being typical. In a comparison of derivational mastery and
knowledge of the prompt words on a four-stage developmental scale,
the subjects showed increasing knowledge of noun and verb derivatives
at each stage, but adjective and adverb forms appeared to be more
difficult for them. The results may imply a need for more direct
attention to the teaching of derivative forms.
The ability to use the appro ...
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iii) Problems in defining a speech community
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How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
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The French Revolution, which began in 1789, was a period of radical social and political upheaval in France. It marked the decline of absolute monarchies, the rise of secular and democratic republics, and the eventual rise of Napoleon Bonaparte. This revolutionary period is crucial in understanding the transition from feudalism to modernity in Europe.
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The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
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We all have good and bad thoughts from time to time and situation to situation. We are bombarded daily with spiraling thoughts(both negative and positive) creating all-consuming feel , making us difficult to manage with associated suffering. Good thoughts are like our Mob Signal (Positive thought) amidst noise(negative thought) in the atmosphere. Negative thoughts like noise outweigh positive thoughts. These thoughts often create unwanted confusion, trouble, stress and frustration in our mind as well as chaos in our physical world. Negative thoughts are also known as “distorted thinking”.
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The map views are useful for providing a geographical representation of data. They allow users to visualize and analyze the data in a more intuitive manner.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
2. Productivity in linguistics
The term “productivity” is used in a wide variety of
contexts.
Syntactic rules are “productive” in the sense that they
can be used to generate new phrases.
The same can be said of some morphological rules.
A linguistic process is productive if:
It can be used to produce novel forms.
If a rule is productive, then:
Novel forms (previously unheard) can be understood and
4. Definitions
Definition:2
Productivity refers to “the property of an affix or a
morphological process [word-formation rule,] to give rise to
new [word] formations.
Definition:3
Productivity can be seen as the possibility of morphological-
rules or affixes to be used in the production or
comprehension of new word-forms.
Definition:4
A word-formation rule or affix is considered productive if it
has the ability to coin new words by other word-formation
processes. In contrast, if it is unproductive, new coinages
5. Productive versus non-productive
Not all affixes possess this property to the same degree,
some affixes do not possess it at all.
For example, that nominal -th (as in length) can only
attach to a small number of specified words, but cannot
attach to any other words beyond that set.
This suffix can therefore be considered unproductive.
Even among affixes that can in principle be used to coin
new words, there seem to be some that are more
productive than others. For example, the suffix -ness (as
cuteness) gives rise to many more new words.
6. Other Scholars on Productivity
Hockett (1958) defines productivity as a “property of
language which allows us to say things which have
never been said before” .
Shultink (1961) views productivity as the possibility for
users of a language to unintentionally produce a (more
or less) uncountable number of formations.
Bauer (2001) claims that productivity is a property of the
affix or a morphological process that is used in order to
produce "[word-] formations on a systemic basis” .
Baayen (2012) says “the term 'morphological
productivity' is generally used informally to refer to the
number of words [the type frequency of an affix] in use
in a language community that a rule describes”.
7. Example of Productivity
Example-1
Imagine an English adjective happy. How would you
derive a noun out of this adjective?
Many speakers might say happiness.
This suggests that –ness suffixation is a productive
derivational process.
Example-2
-s (books) plural and –en (children) plural in English.
In this example –s is productive and –en in unproductive.
8. Possible and actual words
A possible, or potential, word can be defined as a
word whose semantic, morphological or phonological
structure is in accordance with the rules and regularities
of the language.
For example, it seems that all transitive verbs can be
turned into adjectives by the attachment of -able. Thus,
affordable, readable, manageable are all possible
words.
Notably, these forms are also semantically transparent,
i.e. their meaning is predictable on the basis of the
word-formation rule according to which they have been
formed.
Predictability of meaning is therefore another property
9. Actual words can be defined as the words that are in
use.
In the case of the potential words affordable, readable,
manageable, these words are also actual words,
because they have already been coined and used by
speakers.
But not all possible words are existing words, because,
to use again the example of -able, the speakers of
English have not coined -able derivatives on the basis
of each and every transitive verb of English.
10. Measuring productivity
To measure the productivity of an affix, a number of productivity
measures have been proposed.
There is one quantitative measure that is probably the most
widely used and the most widely rejected at the same time.
According to this measure, the productivity of an affix can be
discerned by counting the number of attested different words
with that affix at a given point in time. This has also been called
the type-frequency of an affix.
The severe problem with this measure is that there can be
many words with a given affix, but nevertheless speakers will
not use the suffix to make up new words.
An example of such a suffix is -ment, which in earlier centuries
led to the coinage of hundreds of then new words. Many of
these are still in use, but today’s speakers hardly ever employ -
ment to create a new word and the suffix should therefore be
11. Constraining productivity
All potentially useful words are actually not created and
used, which means that there must be certain restrictions
at work.
Restrictions that originate in problems of language use
(so-called pragmatic restrictions) and those restrictions
that originate in problems of language structure (so-called
structural restrictions).
12. 1- Pragmatic restrictions
The most obvious of the usage-based factors influencing
productivity is fashion.
The rise and fall of affixes like mega-, giga-, mini- or -nik is
an example of the result of extra-linguistic developments in
society which make certain words or morphological
elements desirable to use.
The problem with pragmatic restrictions is that, given a
seemingly impossible new formation, it is not clear whether
it is ruled out on structural grounds or on the basis of
pragmatic considerations.
13. 2- Structural Restrictions
Structural restrictions in word-formation may concern the
traditional levels of linguistic analysis, i.e. phonology,
morphology, semantics and syntax.
For Example Phonological restrictions:
Noun-forming -al
arrive - arrival but enter - *enteral
betray - betrayal but promise - *promiseal
construe - construal but manage - *manageal
deny - denial but answer - *answeral
propose - proposal but forward - *forwardal
Above examples illustrate a stress-related restriction. Nominal
-al only attaches to verbs that end in a stressed syllable.
14. A second example of phonological restrictions can be seen
in the following, which lists typical verbal derivatives in -en,
alongside with impossible derivatives.
verb-forming -en
A) blacken - black
Fatten - fat
Lengthen - long/length
Loosen - loose
Widen - wide
B) *finen - fine
*dullen - dull
*highen - high
*lowen - low
Above examples show that suffixation of verbal -en is subject to a
segmental restriction.
The last sound (or ‘segment’) of the base can be /k/, /t/, /T/, /s/, /d/,
but must not be /n/, /N/, /l/, or a vowel.
15. Morphological restrictions:
Apart from being sensitive to phonological constraints,
affixes can be sensitive to the morphological structure of
their base words.
An example of such a morphological constraint at work is
the suffix combination -ize-ation.
Virtually every word ending in the suffix -ize can be turned
into a noun only by adding -ation.
Other conceivable nominal suffixes, such as -ment, -al, -
age etc., are ruled out by this morphological restriction
imposed on -ize derivatives (cf., for example, colonization
16. Blocking
The term ‘blocking’ has been mainly used to refer to two
different types of phenomena, shown below;
a. thief - *stealer
b. liver ‘inner organ’ - *liver ‘someone who lives’
We can argue that *stealer is impossible because there is
already a synonymous competing form thief available. In the
above example (b) the case is different in the sense that the
derived form *liver ‘someone who lives’ is homonymous to an
already existing non-complex form liver ‘inner organ’.
In both cases one speaks of ‘blocking’, with the existing form
blocking the creation of a semantically or phonologically